who.bib

@book{boyce_forecasting_2015,
  langid = {english},
  title = {Forecasting {{Urban Travel}}: {{Past}}, {{Present}} and {{Future}}},
  isbn = {978-1-78471-359-1},
  shorttitle = {Forecasting {{Urban Travel}}},
  abstract = {Forecasting Urban Travel presents in a non-mathematical way the evolution of methods, models and theories underpinning travel forecasts and policy analysis, from the early urban transportation studies of the 1950s to current applications throughout the},
  pagetotal = {661},
  publisher = {{Edward Elgar Publishing}},
  date = {2015-02-27},
  keywords = {Business & Economics / Industries / Transportation,Transportation / Public Transportation},
  author = {Boyce, David E. and Williams, Huw C. W. L.}
}

@article{martinez_new_2013,
  title = {A New Approach to Modelling Distance-Decay Functions for Accessibility Assessment in Transport Studies},
  volume = {26},
  issn = {09666923},
  doi = {10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2012.08.018},
  abstract = {This paper tries to break new ground in how distance-decay relationships are modelled in accessibility and transport demand studies and does it based on an innovative approach to empirical data collection on psychological perceptions of distance in relation with activities located in space and a new aggregate distance-decay function. This new approach improves on the quality of the representation of spatial interaction effects on transport demand modelling studies that commonly rely on generic curves barely confronted with empirical data. We compare the level of fit of the proposed curve with other distance-decay functions mentioned in the literature and used in practice and draw relevant conclusions on the proper model specification. © 2012 Elsevier Ltd.},
  journaltitle = {Journal of Transport Geography},
  date = {2013},
  pages = {87--96},
  keywords = {spatial interaction models,Accessibility studies,Distance-decay functions,Spatial impedance functions},
  author = {Martínez, L. Miguel and Viegas, José Manuel}
}

@article{lovelace_stplanr_2017,
  title = {Stplanr: {{A Package}} for {{Transport Planning}}},
  url = {https://github.com/ropensci/stplanr},
  abstract = {stplanr - R package providing functions and data access for transport research},
  journaltitle = {Under Review},
  urldate = {2016-11-24},
  date = {2017},
  author = {Lovelace, Robin and Ellison, Richard}
}

@report{highways_england_interim_2016,
  title = {Interim {{Advice Note}} 195/16: {{Cycle Traffic}} and the {{Strategic Road Network}}},
  url = {http://www.standardsforhighways.co.uk/ha/standards/ians/pdfs/ian195.pdf},
  abstract = {The Strategic Road Network (SRN) makes up a small proportion of the national 
highway network but has an important role
 to play in supporting journeys made by 
cycle as referenced in the Highways England Cycling Strategy. 
This document provides requirements and 
advice relevant to the SRN for the 
planning and design of infrastructure for cycle traffic and is intended to be used by 
highway design professionals.},
  number = {195/16},
  institution = {{Highways England}},
  date = {2016},
  author = {Highways England}
}

@article{barrington-leigh_world_2017,
  title = {The World’s User-Generated Road Map Is More than 80\% Complete},
  volume = {12},
  issn = {1932-6203},
  url = {http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0180698},
  doi = {10.1371/journal.pone.0180698},
  abstract = {OpenStreetMap, a crowdsourced geographic database, provides the only global-level, openly licensed source of geospatial road data, and the only national-level source in many countries. However, researchers, policy makers, and citizens who want to make use of OpenStreetMap (OSM) have little information about whether it can be relied upon in a particular geographic setting. In this paper, we use two complementary, independent methods to assess the completeness of OSM road data in each country in the world. First, we undertake a visual assessment of OSM data against satellite imagery, which provides the input for estimates based on a multilevel regression and poststratification model. Second, we fit sigmoid curves to the cumulative length of contributions, and use them to estimate the saturation level for each country. Both techniques may have more general use for assessing the development and saturation of crowd-sourced data. Our results show that in many places, researchers and policymakers can rely on the completeness of OSM, or will soon be able to do so. We find (i) that globally, OSM is ∼83\% complete, and more than 40\% of countries—including several in the developing world—have a fully mapped street network; (ii) that well-governed countries with good Internet access tend to be more complete, and that completeness has a U-shaped relationship with population density—both sparsely populated areas and dense cities are the best mapped; and (iii) that existing global datasets used by the World Bank undercount roads by more than 30\%.},
  number = {8},
  journaltitle = {PLOS ONE},
  shortjournal = {PLOS ONE},
  urldate = {2017-08-14},
  date = {2017-08-10},
  pages = {e0180698},
  keywords = {human mobility,Roads,Population density,Internet,Confidence intervals,Geoinformatics,Behavioral geography,China},
  author = {Barrington-Leigh, Christopher and Millard-Ball, Adam}
}

@article{celis-morales_association_2017,
  langid = {english},
  title = {Association between Active Commuting and Incident Cardiovascular Disease, Cancer, and Mortality: Prospective Cohort Study},
  issn = {0959-8138, 1756-1833},
  url = {http://www.bmj.com/lookup/doi/10.1136/bmj.j1456},
  doi = {10.1136/bmj.j1456},
  shorttitle = {Association between Active Commuting and Incident Cardiovascular Disease, Cancer, and Mortality},
  journaltitle = {BMJ},
  urldate = {2017-08-15},
  date = {2017-04-19},
  pages = {j1456},
  author = {Celis-Morales, Carlos A and Lyall, Donald M and Welsh, Paul and Anderson, Jana and Steell, Lewis and Guo, Yibing and Maldonado, Reno and Mackay, Daniel F and Pell, Jill P and Sattar, Naveed and Gill, Jason M R}
}

@article{heinen_does_2017,
  title = {Does Exposure to New Transport Infrastructure Result in Modal Shifts? {{Patterns}} of Change in Commute Mode Choices in a Four-Year Quasi-Experimental Cohort Study},
  volume = {6},
  issn = {2214-1405},
  url = {http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S221414051730155X},
  doi = {10.1016/j.jth.2017.07.009},
  shorttitle = {Does Exposure to New Transport Infrastructure Result in Modal Shifts?},
  abstract = {Intervention studies suggest that changing the built environment may encourage a modal shift from car travel towards active travel. However, little is known about the detail of patterns of changes in travel behaviour. Adult commuters working in Cambridge (UK) completed annual questionnaires between 2009 and 2012. Commuting was assessed using a validated seven-day travel-to-work record. The intervention consisted of the opening of a guided busway with a path for walking and cycling in 2011. Exposure to the intervention was defined as the negative of the square root of the shortest road distance from home to the busway. We investigated the association between exposure to the intervention and specific modal shifts and patterns of change, along with individual mode choice patterns over the entire four-year period. Five groups of patterns of change were found in our in-depth explorations: (1) no change, (2) a full modal shift, (3) a partial modal shift, (4) non-stable but patterned behaviour, and (5) complicated or apparently random patterns. A minority of participants had a directed change of either a full modal shift or, more commonly, a partial modal shift, whereas a large proportion showed a highly variable pattern. No significant associations were found between exposure to the intervention and specific modal shifts or patterns of change. Our analyses revealed a large diversity in (changes in) travel behaviour patterns over time, and showed that the intervention did not result in one specific pattern of behaviour change or produce only full modal shifts. These insights are important for improving the measurement of travel behaviour, improving our understanding of how changes in travel behaviour patterns occur, and fully capturing the potential impacts of interventions.},
  issue = {Supplement C},
  journaltitle = {Journal of Transport \& Health},
  shortjournal = {Journal of Transport \& Health},
  urldate = {2017-11-18},
  date = {2017-09-01},
  pages = {396--410},
  author = {Heinen, Eva and Harshfield, Amelia and Panter, Jenna and Mackett, Roger and Ogilvie, David}
}

@article{Padgham2017,
  title = {Osmdata},
  volume = {2},
  url = {https://doi.org/10.21105/joss.00305},
  doi = {10.21105/joss.00305},
  number = {14},
  journaltitle = {The Journal of Open Source Software},
  date = {2017-06},
  author = {Padgham, Mark and Lovelace, Robin and Salmon, Maëlle and Rudis, Bob}
}

@article{moreno-monroy_public_2017,
  title = {Public Transport and School Location Impacts on Educational Inequalities: {{Insights}} from {{São Paulo}}},
  issn = {0966-6923},
  url = {http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0966692316303453},
  doi = {10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2017.08.012},
  shorttitle = {Public Transport and School Location Impacts on Educational Inequalities},
  abstract = {In many large Latin American urban areas such as the São Paulo Metropolitan Region (SPMR), growing social and economic inequalities are embedded through high spatial inequality in the provision of state schools and affordable public transport to these schools. This paper sheds light on the transport-education inequality nexus with reference to school accessibility by public transport in the SPMR. To assess school accessibility, we develop an accessibility index which combines information on the spatial distribution of adolescents, the location of existing schools, and the public transport provision serving the school catchment area into a single measure. The index is used to measure school accessibility locally across 633 areas within the SPMR. We use the index to simulate the impact of a policy aiming at increasing the centralisation of public secondary education provision, and find that it negatively affects public transport accessibility for students with the lowest levels of accessibility. These results illustrate how existing inequalities can be amplified by variable accessibility to schools across income groups and geographical space. The research suggests that educational inequality impacts of school agglomeration policies should be considered before centralisation takes place.},
  journaltitle = {Journal of Transport Geography},
  shortjournal = {Journal of Transport Geography},
  urldate = {2017-10-15},
  date = {2017-09-15},
  keywords = {Schools,Accessibility,Public transport,Latin America,Inequality},
  author = {Moreno-Monroy, Ana I. and Lovelace, Robin and Ramos, Frederico R.}
}

@article{lovelace_propensity_2017,
  langid = {english},
  title = {The {{Propensity}} to {{Cycle Tool}}: {{An}} Open Source Online System for Sustainable Transport Planning},
  volume = {10},
  rights = {Copyright (c) 2016 Robin Lovelace, Anna Goodman, Rachel Aldred, Nikolai Berkoff, Ali Abbas, James Woodcock},
  issn = {1938-7849},
  url = {https://www.jtlu.org/index.php/jtlu/article/view/862},
  doi = {10.5198/jtlu.2016.862},
  shorttitle = {The {{Propensity}} to {{Cycle Tool}}},
  abstract = {Getting people cycling is an increasingly common objective in transport planning institutions worldwide. A growing evidence base indicates that high quality infrastructure can boost local cycling rates. Yet for infrastructure and other cycling measures to be effective, it is important to intervene in the right places, such as along ‘desire lines’ of high latent demand. This creates the need for tools and methods to help answer the question ‘where to build?’. Following a brief review of the policy and research context related to this question, this paper describes the design, features and potential applications of such a tool. The Propensity to Cycle Tool (PCT) is an online, interactive planning support system that was initially developed to explore and map cycling potential across England (see www.pct.bike). Based on origin-destination data it models cycling levels at area, desire line, route and route network levels, for current levels of cycling, and for scenario-based ‘cycling futures.’ Four scenarios are presented, including ‘Go Dutch’ and ‘Ebikes,’ which explore what would happen if English people had the same propensity to cycle as Dutch people and the potential impact of electric cycles on cycling uptake. The cost effectiveness of investment depends not only on the number of additional trips cycled, but on wider impacts such as health and carbon benefits. The PCT reports these at area, desire line, and route level for each scenario. The PCT is open source, facilitating the creation of scenarios and deployment in new contexts. We conclude that the PCT illustrates the potential of online tools to inform transport decisions and raises the wider issue of how models should be used in transport planning.},
  number = {1},
  journaltitle = {Journal of Transport and Land Use},
  urldate = {2017-06-01},
  date = {2017-01-01},
  keywords = {Planning,Cycling,modelling,Participatory},
  author = {Lovelace, Robin and Goodman, Anna and Aldred, Rachel and Berkoff, Nikolai and Abbas, Ali and Woodcock, James}
}

@article{cooper_using_2017,
  langid = {english},
  title = {Using Spatial Network Analysis to Model Pedal Cycle Flows, Risk and Mode Choice},
  volume = {58},
  issn = {09666923},
  url = {http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0966692316307256},
  doi = {10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2016.12.003},
  journaltitle = {Journal of Transport Geography},
  urldate = {2016-12-30},
  date = {2017-01},
  pages = {157--165},
  author = {Cooper, Crispin H.V.}
}

@article{sinharay_respiratory_2017,
  langid = {english},
  title = {Respiratory and Cardiovascular Responses to Walking down a Traffic-Polluted Road Compared with Walking in a Traffic-Free Area in Participants Aged 60 Years and Older with Chronic Lung or Heart Disease and Age-Matched Healthy Controls: A Randomised, Crossover Study},
  volume = {0},
  issn = {0140-6736, 1474-547X},
  url = {http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(17)32643-0/abstract},
  doi = {10.1016/S0140-6736(17)32643-0},
  shorttitle = {Respiratory and Cardiovascular Responses to Walking down a Traffic-Polluted Road Compared with Walking in a Traffic-Free Area in Participants Aged 60 Years and Older with Chronic Lung or Heart Disease and Age-Matched Healthy Controls},
  abstract = {\subsection{Summary$<$/h2$>$

\subsubsection{Background$<$/h3$>$

Long-term exposure to pollution can lead to an increase in the rate of decline of lung function, especially in older individuals and in those with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), whereas shorter-term exposure at higher pollution levels has been implicated in causing excess deaths from ischaemic heart disease and exacerbations of COPD. We aimed to assess the effects on respiratory and cardiovascular responses of walking down a busy street with high levels of pollution compared with walking in a traffic-free area with lower pollution levels in older adults.$<$/p$>$

\subsubsection{Methods$<$/h3$>$

In this randomised, crossover study, we recruited men and women aged 60 years and older with angiographically proven stable ischaemic heart disease or stage 2 Global initiative for Obstructive Lung Disease (GOLD) COPD who had been clinically stable for 6 months, and age-matched healthy volunteers. Individuals with ischaemic heart disease or COPD were recruited from existing databases or outpatient respiratory and cardiology clinics at the Royal Brompton \& Harefield NHS Foundation Trust and age-matched healthy volunteers using advertising and existing databases. All participants had abstained from smoking for at least 12 months and medications were taken as recommended by participants' doctors during the study. Participants were randomly assigned by drawing numbered disks at random from a bag to do a 2 h walk either along a commercial street in London (Oxford Street) or in an urban park (Hyde Park). Baseline measurements of participants were taken before the walk in the hospital laboratory. During each walk session, black carbon, particulate matter (PM) concentrations, ultrafine particles, and nitrogen dioxide (NO\textsubscript{2}) concentrations were measured.$<$/p$>$

\subsubsection{Findings$<$/h3$>$

Between October, 2012, and June, 2014, we screened 135 participants, of whom 40 healthy volunteers, 40 individuals with COPD, and 39 with ischaemic heart disease were recruited. Concentrations of black carbon, NO\textsubscript{2}, PM\textsubscript{10}, PM\textsubscript{2.5}, and ultrafine particles were higher on Oxford Street than in Hyde Park. Participants with COPD reported more cough (odds ratio [OR] 1·95, 95\% CI 0·96–3·95; p$<$0·1), sputum (3·15, 1·39–7·13; p$<$0·05), shortness of breath (1·86, 0·97–3·57; p$<$0·1), and wheeze (4·00, 1·52–10·50; p$<$0·05) after walking down Oxford Street compared with Hyde Park. In all participants, irrespective of their disease status, walking in Hyde Park led to an increase in lung function (forced expiratory volume in the first second [FEV\textsubscript{1}] and forced vital capacity [FVC]) and a decrease in pulse wave velocity (PWV) and augmentation index up to 26 h after the walk. By contrast, these beneficial responses were attenuated after walking on Oxford Street. In participants with COPD, a reduction in FEV\textsubscript{1} and FVC, and an increase in R5–20 were associated with an increase in during-walk exposure to NO\textsubscript{2}, ultrafine particles and PM\textsubscript{2.5}, and an increase in PWV and augmentation index with NO\textsubscript{2} and ultrafine particles. In healthy volunteers, PWV and augmentation index were associated both with black carbon and ultrafine particles.$<$/p$>$

\subsubsection{Interpretation$<$/h3$>$

Short-term exposure to traffic pollution prevents the beneficial cardiopulmonary effects of walking in people with COPD, ischaemic heart disease, and those free from chronic cardiopulmonary diseases. Medication use might reduce the adverse effects of air pollution in individuals with ischaemic heart disease. Policies should aim to control ambient levels of air pollution along busy streets in view of these negative health effects.$<$/p$>$

\subsubsection{Funding$<$/h3$>$

British Heart Foundation.$<$/p$>$

}

}

}

}

}

}},
  number = {0},
  journaltitle = {The Lancet},
  shortjournal = {The Lancet},
  urldate = {2017-12-12},
  date = {2017-12-05},
  author = {Sinharay, Rudy and Gong, Jicheng and Barratt, Benjamin and Ohman-Strickland, Pamela and Ernst, Sabine and Kelly, Frank and Zhang, Junfeng (Jim) and Collins, Peter and Cullinan, Paul and Chung, Kian Fan},
  eprinttype = {pmid},
  eprint = {29221643, 29221643}
}

@book{padgham_bikedata_2017,
  title = {Bikedata: {{Download}} and {{Aggregate Data}} from {{Public Hire Bicycle Systems}}},
  url = {https://CRAN.R-project.org/package=bikedata},
  date = {2017},
  author = {Padgham, Mark and Ellison, Richard},
  note = {R package version 0.1.0}
}

@book{padgham_dodgr_2017,
  title = {Dodgr: {{Distances}} on {{Directed Graphs}}},
  url = {https://CRAN.R-project.org/package=dodgr},
  date = {2017},
  author = {Padgham, Mark and Peutschnig, Andreas},
  note = {R package version 0.0.3}
}

@incollection{quarshie_integrating_2007,
  langid = {english},
  title = {Integrating Cycling in {{Bus Rapid Transit}} System in {{Accra}}},
  edition = {1},
  isbn = {978-1-4020-6009-0 978-1-4020-6010-6},
  url = {https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4020-6010-6_11},
  abstract = {Since the introduction of motor vehicles, practicing engineers and city planner have underestimated the potential of non-motorized transport. As traffic congestion has become severe in many large cities, especially in the developing world, other transport alternatives need to be considered and efficient public transport systems should be given utter priority as they have enormous environmental, social and commercial benefits. There are several options of public transport system. However, in recent times the Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) system option is fast catching up with developing countries. Accra has in recent years been grappling to put in place a public transport system. The BRT concept has been introduced and the World Bank has pledged to support it having ascertained its feasibility [1,2]. Inevitably, there has arisen the need to integrate cycling into the BRT system owing to the increasing use of bicycles in Accra. The integration will afford commuters the opportunity to combined different modes in the most efficient, time and cost-effective manner. This would therefore require strategic planning to link cycle routes to terminals on major route.},
  booktitle = {Highway and {{Urban Environment}}},
  series = {Alliance For Global Sustainability Bookseries},
  publisher = {{Springer, Dordrecht}},
  urldate = {2018-01-03},
  date = {2007},
  pages = {103--116},
  author = {Quarshie, Magnus},
  doi = {10.1007/978-1-4020-6010-6_11}
}

@book{agyemang_bus_2015,
  title = {The Bus Rapid Transit System in the {{Greater Accra Metropolitan Area}}, {{Ghana}}: {{Looking}} Back to Look Forward},
  volume = {69},
  shorttitle = {The Bus Rapid Transit System in the {{Greater Accra Metropolitan Area}}, {{Ghana}}},
  abstract = {The first decade of the 21st century witnessed a proliferation of bus rapid transit systems in many cities worlwide. Successful transit systems, especially in poor cities, have been lauded and presented as models for other cities to emulate. However, little attention has been given to unsuccessful transit systems, even though reasons for their failures could be beneficial to poor cities planning to invest in mass public transport. The author examines the militating factors in the demise of Ghana's first bus rapid transit system and draws useful lessons for the present and future. Qualitative data from interviews, surveys, and in-depth key informant interviews are analysed and presented in thematic narratives. They are complemented with quantitative (travel time) data. The results show that recurring traffic congestion, passengers' inadequate comfort and personal security, resistance from existing public transport operators, lack of legal status for a bus rapid transit (BRT) system, and limited advertising led to the collapse of the pilot system in the Greater Accra Metroplitan Area (GAMA). The author concludes that the success of present and future BRT systems is and will be a function of multiple stakeholder consultation and participation, privatization of day-to-day operations, promotion of multimodalism, and planning with the commuter in mind.},
  pagetotal = {28},
  date = {2015-02-13},
  author = {Agyemang, Ernest},
  doi = {10.1080/00291951.2014.992808}
}

@book{levinson_bus_2003,
  location = {{Washington, D.C.}},
  title = {Bus {{Rapid Transit}}, {{Volume}} 2: {{Implementation Guidelines}}},
  isbn = {978-0-309-43120-0},
  url = {https://www.nap.edu/catalog/21947},
  shorttitle = {Bus {{Rapid Transit}}, {{Volume}} 2},
  publisher = {{Transportation Research Board}},
  urldate = {2018-01-03},
  date = {2003-01-07},
  author = {Levinson, Herbert and Zimmerman, Samuel and Clinger, Jennifer and Rutherford, Scott and Smith, Rodney and Cracknell, John and Soberman, Richard and {Transportation Research Board} and {National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine}},
  doi = {10.17226/21947}
}

@article{agyemang_bus_2015a,
  langid = {english},
  title = {The Bus Rapid Transit System in the {{Greater Accra Metropolitan Area}}, {{Ghana}}: {{Looking}} Back to Look Forward},
  volume = {69},
  issn = {0029-1951, 1502-5292},
  url = {http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00291951.2014.992808},
  doi = {10.1080/00291951.2014.992808},
  shorttitle = {The Bus Rapid Transit System in the {{Greater Accra Metropolitan Area}}, {{Ghana}}},
  number = {1},
  journaltitle = {Norsk Geografisk Tidsskrift - Norwegian Journal of Geography},
  urldate = {2018-01-03},
  date = {2015-01},
  pages = {28--37},
  author = {Agyemang, Ernest}
}

@book{agyemang_traffic_2014,
  langid = {english},
  location = {{Place of publication not identified}},
  title = {Traffic {{Congestion}} \& {{Public Transport}} in {{Ghana}}:{{A Triangulated Analysis}}},
  isbn = {978-3-659-50859-2},
  shorttitle = {Traffic {{Congestion}} \& {{Public Transport}} in {{Ghana}}},
  abstract = {The 21st century has witnessed unparalleled levels of motorization, poor traffic management and inadequate land use and transportation planning. Thus, traffic congestion has become ubiquitous with dire consequences for urban economies all over the world.   This book provides students in urban transportation, planners and city authorities with requisite knowledge on the causes and the extent to which traffic congestion in Accra, Ghana's capital, conspired with other factors to thwart efforts at improving public transport through the bus rapid transit system.  The book has meticulously triangulated data and theoretical sources, including GIS-based techniques; key informant(in-depth)\& semi-  structured interviews,in addition to the Time-Geographic, Structuration and General Systems theories.  While Accra’s intractable traffic congestion primarily collapsed the time-bound express bus service, other unfavorable factors are identified as well.  Thus, efforts by policy makers and planners to curb congestion and improve public transport must entail congestion pricing, proper traffic accidents management and the implementation of a comprehensive land-use-transportation-system master plan.},
  pagetotal = {164},
  publisher = {{LAP LAMBERT Academic Publishing}},
  date = {2014-01-26},
  author = {Agyemang, Ernest}
}

@article{birago_level_2017,
  title = {Level of Service Delivery of Public Transport and Mode Choice in {{Accra}}, {{Ghana}}},
  volume = {46},
  issn = {1369-8478},
  url = {http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S136984781630417X},
  doi = {10.1016/j.trf.2016.09.033},
  abstract = {Worsening traffic congestion and air quality has been associated with the proliferation of informal operation of private microbus and minibus in African cities. It is recognised that large buses hold the promise of relieving the growing congestion of African cities if they are managed efficiently and sustainably. It is in line with this that this study seeks to explore the reasons behind commuters’ non-preference of Metro Mass Transit (MMT) for intra-city commuting in Accra, Ghana. A revealed preference survey was administered to 134 commuters to find out the reasons behind their non-preference and their perception of the level of service (LOS) delivery of the Metro Mass Transit. The Study revealed that though Metro Mass Transit was 20\% cheaper in terms of price, commuters perceived its service delivery as poor. Over-crowding of buses, non-adherence to time schedule, long in-vehicle time, perception of not getting access to seats, non-availability of bus at respondents’ origins and destinations, accessibility of alternative modes and long waiting times for buses accounted for the major reasons for non-preference. Metro Mass Transit Limited’s improvement in its service attributes especially in-vehicle time, waiting time, comfort, reliability and accessibility is a means of increasing its modal share. Adherence to these is the surest way to achieving the objective of promoting mass transit in Accra by shifting people from the use of unsustainable modes such as mini-buses and taxis to the use of efficient high capacity systems as Metro Mass Transit.},
  issue = {Part B},
  journaltitle = {Transportation Research Part F: Traffic Psychology and Behaviour},
  shortjournal = {Transportation Research Part F: Traffic Psychology and Behaviour},
  series = {Special Issue on Special Road safety as reflected by empirical non-crash data},
  urldate = {2018-01-03},
  date = {2017-04-01},
  pages = {284--300},
  keywords = {Public transport,Level of service,Metro mass transit,Mode choice,Perception},
  author = {Birago, Dora and Opoku Mensah, Seth and Sharma, Somesh}
}

@article{deng_recent_2011,
  langid = {english},
  title = {Recent {{Developments}} in {{Bus Rapid Transit}}: {{A Review}} of the {{Literature}}},
  volume = {31},
  issn = {0144-1647, 1464-5327},
  url = {http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01441647.2010.492455},
  doi = {10.1080/01441647.2010.492455},
  shorttitle = {Recent {{Developments}} in {{Bus Rapid Transit}}},
  number = {1},
  journaltitle = {Transport Reviews},
  urldate = {2018-01-03},
  date = {2011-01},
  pages = {69--96},
  author = {Deng, Taotao and Nelson, John D.}
}

@article{Wilson2008,
  langid = {english},
  title = {Boltzmann, {{Lotka}} and {{Volterra}} and Spatial Structural Evolution: An Integrated Methodology for Some Dynamical Systems},
  volume = {5},
  rights = {© 2007 The Royal Society},
  issn = {1742-5689, 1742-5662},
  url = {http://rsif.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/5/25/865},
  doi = {10.1098/rsif.2007.1288},
  shorttitle = {Boltzmann, {{Lotka}} and {{Volterra}} and Spatial Structural Evolution},
  abstract = {It is shown that Boltzmann's methods from statistical physics can be applied to a much wider range of systems, and in a variety of disciplines, than has been commonly recognized. A similar argument can be applied to the ecological models of Lotka and Volterra. Furthermore, it is shown that the two methodologies can be applied in combination to generate the Boltzmann, Lotka and Volterra (BLV) models. These techniques enable both spatial interaction and spatial structural evolution to be modelled, and it is argued that they potentially provide a much richer modelling methodology than that currently used in the analysis of ‘scale-free’ networks.},
  number = {25},
  journaltitle = {Journal of The Royal Society Interface},
  urldate = {2018-01-15},
  date = {2008-08-06},
  pages = {865--871},
  author = {Wilson, Alan}
}

@article{naess_transport_2014,
  title = {Transport {{Modelling}} in the {{Context}} of the ‘{{Predict}} and {{Provide}}’{{Paradigm}}},
  volume = {14},
  url = {http://vbn.aau.dk/ws/files/197640305/N_ss_et_al._2014_Transport_modelling_in_the_context_of_the_predict_and_provide_paradigm.pdf},
  number = {2},
  journaltitle = {European Journal of Transport and Infrastructure Research},
  urldate = {2015-12-04},
  date = {2014},
  pages = {102--121},
  author = {Naess, Petter and Andersen, Jeppe and Nicolaisen, Morten Skou and Strand, Arvid}
}

@book{boyce_forecasting_2015,
  langid = {english},
  title = {Forecasting {{Urban Travel}}: {{Past}}, {{Present}} and {{Future}}},
  isbn = {978-1-78471-359-1},
  shorttitle = {Forecasting {{Urban Travel}}},
  abstract = {Forecasting Urban Travel presents in a non-mathematical way the evolution of methods, models and theories underpinning travel forecasts and policy analysis, from the early urban transportation studies of the 1950s to current applications throughout the},
  publisher = {{Edward Elgar Publishing}},
  date = {2015-02-27},
  keywords = {Business & Economics / Industries / Transportation,Transportation / Public Transportation},
  author = {Boyce, David E. and Williams, Huw C. W. L.},
  pagetotal = {661}
}

@book{kuzmyak_estimating_2014,
  location = {{Washington, DC}},
  title = {Estimating {{Bicycling}} and {{Walking}} for {{Planning}} and {{Project Development}}},
  isbn = {978-0-309-28403-5},
  number = {770},
  series = {Nchrp national cooperative highway research program report},
  publisher = {{Transportation Research Board of the National Academies}},
  date = {2014},
  author = {Kuzmyak, J. Richard and Walters, Jerry and Bradley, Mark and Kockelman, KM}
}

@article{barrington-leigh_worlds_2017,
  title = {The {{World}}’s {{User}}-{{Generated Road Map Is More}} than 80\% {{Complete}}},
  volume = {12},
  issn = {1932-6203},
  url = {http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0180698},
  doi = {10.1371/journal.pone.0180698},
  abstract = {OpenStreetMap, a crowdsourced geographic database, provides the only global-level, openly licensed source of geospatial road data, and the only national-level source in many countries. However, researchers, policy makers, and citizens who want to make use of OpenStreetMap (OSM) have little information about whether it can be relied upon in a particular geographic setting. In this paper, we use two complementary, independent methods to assess the completeness of OSM road data in each country in the world. First, we undertake a visual assessment of OSM data against satellite imagery, which provides the input for estimates based on a multilevel regression and poststratification model. Second, we fit sigmoid curves to the cumulative length of contributions, and use them to estimate the saturation level for each country. Both techniques may have more general use for assessing the development and saturation of crowd-sourced data. Our results show that in many places, researchers and policymakers can rely on the completeness of OSM, or will soon be able to do so. We find (i) that globally, OSM is ∼83\% complete, and more than 40\% of countries—including several in the developing world—have a fully mapped street network; (ii) that well-governed countries with good Internet access tend to be more complete, and that completeness has a U-shaped relationship with population density—both sparsely populated areas and dense cities are the best mapped; and (iii) that existing global datasets used by the World Bank undercount roads by more than 30\%.},
  number = {8},
  journaltitle = {PLOS ONE},
  urldate = {2017-08-14},
  date = {2017-08-10},
  pages = {e0180698},
  keywords = {human mobility,Roads,Population density,Internet,Confidence intervals,Geoinformatics,Behavioral geography,China},
  author = {Barrington-Leigh, Christopher and Millard-Ball, Adam},
  shortjournal = {PLOS ONE}
}

@article{celis-morales_association_2017,
  langid = {english},
  title = {Association between {{Active Commuting}} and {{Incident Cardiovascular Disease}}, {{Cancer}}, and {{Mortality}}: {{Prospective Cohort Study}}},
  issn = {0959-8138, 1756-1833},
  url = {http://www.bmj.com/lookup/doi/10.1136/bmj.j1456},
  doi = {10.1136/bmj.j1456},
  shorttitle = {Association between {{Active Commuting}} and {{Incident Cardiovascular Disease}}, {{Cancer}}, and {{Mortality}}},
  journaltitle = {BMJ},
  urldate = {2017-08-15},
  date = {2017-04-19},
  pages = {j1456},
  author = {Celis-Morales, Carlos A and Lyall, Donald M and Welsh, Paul and Anderson, Jana and Steell, Lewis and Guo, Yibing and Maldonado, Reno and Mackay, Daniel F and Pell, Jill P and Sattar, Naveed and Gill, Jason M R}
}

@article{tatem_worldpop_2017,
  title = {{{WorldPop}}, {{Open Data}} for {{Spatial Demography}}},
  volume = {4},
  issn = {2052-4463},
  url = {http://www.nature.com/articles/sdata20174},
  doi = {10.1038/sdata.2017.4},
  journaltitle = {Scientific Data},
  urldate = {2017-12-20},
  date = {2017-01-31},
  pages = {170004},
  author = {Tatem, Andrew J.}
}

@incollection{quarshie_integrating_2007,
  langid = {english},
  title = {Integrating {{Cycling}} in {{Bus Rapid Transit System}} in {{Accra}}},
  isbn = {978-1-4020-6009-0 978-1-4020-6010-6},
  url = {https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4020-6010-6_11},
  abstract = {Since the introduction of motor vehicles, practicing engineers and city planner have underestimated the potential of non-motorized transport. As traffic congestion has become severe in many large cities, especially in the developing world, other transport alternatives need to be considered and efficient public transport systems should be given utter priority as they have enormous environmental, social and commercial benefits. There are several options of public transport system. However, in recent times the Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) system option is fast catching up with developing countries. Accra has in recent years been grappling to put in place a public transport system. The BRT concept has been introduced and the World Bank has pledged to support it having ascertained its feasibility [1,2]. Inevitably, there has arisen the need to integrate cycling into the BRT system owing to the increasing use of bicycles in Accra. The integration will afford commuters the opportunity to combined different modes in the most efficient, time and cost-effective manner. This would therefore require strategic planning to link cycle routes to terminals on major route.},
  booktitle = {Highway and {{Urban Environment}}},
  series = {Alliance For Global Sustainability Bookseries},
  publisher = {{Springer, Dordrecht}},
  urldate = {2018-01-03},
  date = {2007},
  pages = {103--116},
  author = {Quarshie, Magnus},
  editor = {Morrison, Gregory M. and Rauch, S'ebastien},
  doi = {10.1007/978-1-4020-6010-6_11}
}

@book{agyemang_bus_2015,
  title = {The {{Bus Rapid Transit System}} in the {{Greater Accra Metropolitan Area}}, {{Ghana}}: {{Looking Back}} to {{Look Forward}}},
  volume = {69},
  shorttitle = {The {{Bus Rapid Transit System}} in the {{Greater Accra Metropolitan Area}}, {{Ghana}}},
  abstract = {The first decade of the 21st century witnessed a proliferation of bus rapid transit systems in many cities worlwide. Successful transit systems, especially in poor cities, have been lauded and presented as models for other cities to emulate. However, little attention has been given to unsuccessful transit systems, even though reasons for their failures could be beneficial to poor cities planning to invest in mass public transport. The author examines the militating factors in the demise of Ghana's first bus rapid transit system and draws useful lessons for the present and future. Qualitative data from interviews, surveys, and in-depth key informant interviews are analysed and presented in thematic narratives. They are complemented with quantitative (travel time) data. The results show that recurring traffic congestion, passengers' inadequate comfort and personal security, resistance from existing public transport operators, lack of legal status for a bus rapid transit (BRT) system, and limited advertising led to the collapse of the pilot system in the Greater Accra Metroplitan Area (GAMA). The author concludes that the success of present and future BRT systems is and will be a function of multiple stakeholder consultation and participation, privatization of day-to-day operations, promotion of multimodalism, and planning with the commuter in mind.},
  date = {2015-02-13},
  author = {Agyemang, Ernest},
  doi = {10.1080/00291951.2014.992808},
  pagetotal = {28}
}

@book{levinson_bus_2003,
  location = {{Washington, D.C.}},
  title = {Bus {{Rapid Transit}}, {{Volume}} 2: {{Implementation Guidelines}}},
  isbn = {978-0-309-43120-0},
  url = {https://www.nap.edu/catalog/21947},
  shorttitle = {Bus {{Rapid Transit}}, {{Volume}} 2},
  publisher = {{Transportation Research Board}},
  urldate = {2018-01-03},
  date = {2003-01-07},
  author = {Levinson, Herbert and Zimmerman, Samuel and Clinger, Jennifer and Rutherford, Scott and Smith, Rodney and Cracknell, John and Soberman, Richard and {Transportation Research Board} and National Academies of Sciences, Engineering and {edicine}},
  doi = {10.17226/21947}
}

@article{deng_recent_2011,
  langid = {english},
  title = {Recent {{Developments}} in {{Bus Rapid Transit}}: {{A Review}} of the {{Literature}}},
  volume = {31},
  issn = {0144-1647, 1464-5327},
  url = {http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01441647.2010.492455},
  doi = {10.1080/01441647.2010.492455},
  shorttitle = {Recent {{Developments}} in {{Bus Rapid Transit}}},
  number = {1},
  journaltitle = {Transport Reviews},
  urldate = {2018-01-03},
  date = {2011-01},
  pages = {69--96},
  author = {Deng, Taotao and Nelson, John D.}
}

@article{birago_level_2017,
  title = {Level of {{Service Delivery}} of {{Public Transport}} and {{Mode Choice}} in {{Accra}}, {{Ghana}}},
  volume = {46},
  issn = {1369-8478},
  url = {http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S136984781630417X},
  doi = {10.1016/j.trf.2016.09.033},
  abstract = {Worsening traffic congestion and air quality has been associated with the proliferation of informal operation of private microbus and minibus in African cities. It is recognised that large buses hold the promise of relieving the growing congestion of African cities if they are managed efficiently and sustainably. It is in line with this that this study seeks to explore the reasons behind commuters’ non-preference of Metro Mass Transit (MMT) for intra-city commuting in Accra, Ghana. A revealed preference survey was administered to 134 commuters to find out the reasons behind their non-preference and their perception of the level of service (LOS) delivery of the Metro Mass Transit. The Study revealed that though Metro Mass Transit was 20\% cheaper in terms of price, commuters perceived its service delivery as poor. Over-crowding of buses, non-adherence to time schedule, long in-vehicle time, perception of not getting access to seats, non-availability of bus at respondents’ origins and destinations, accessibility of alternative modes and long waiting times for buses accounted for the major reasons for non-preference. Metro Mass Transit Limited’s improvement in its service attributes especially in-vehicle time, waiting time, comfort, reliability and accessibility is a means of increasing its modal share. Adherence to these is the surest way to achieving the objective of promoting mass transit in Accra by shifting people from the use of unsustainable modes such as mini-buses and taxis to the use of efficient high capacity systems as Metro Mass Transit.},
  journaltitle = {Transportation Research Part F: Traffic Psychology and Behaviour},
  series = {Special Issue on Special Road safety as reflected by empirical non-crash data},
  urldate = {2018-01-03},
  date = {2017-04-01},
  pages = {284--300},
  keywords = {Public transport,Level of service,Metro mass transit,Mode choice,Perception},
  author = {Birago, Dora and Opoku Mensah, Seth and Sharma, Somesh},
  issue = {Part B},
  shortjournal = {Transportation Research Part F: Traffic Psychology and Behaviour}
}

@book{agyemang_traffic_2014,
  langid = {english},
  location = {{Place of publication not identified}},
  title = {Traffic {{Congestion}} \& {{Public Transport}} in {{Ghana}}:{{A Triangulated Analysis}}},
  isbn = {978-3-659-50859-2},
  shorttitle = {Traffic {{Congestion}} \& {{Public Transport}} in {{Ghana}}},
  abstract = {The 21st century has witnessed unparalleled levels of motorization, poor traffic management and inadequate land use and transportation planning. Thus, traffic congestion has become ubiquitous with dire consequences for urban economies all over the world. This book provides students in urban transportation, planners and city authorities with requisite knowledge on the causes and the extent to which traffic congestion in Accra, Ghana's capital, conspired with other factors to thwart efforts at improving public transport through the bus rapid transit system. The book has meticulously triangulated data and theoretical sources, including GIS-based techniques; key informant(in-depth)\& semi- structured interviews,in addition to the Time-Geographic, Structuration and General Systems theories. While Accra’s intractable traffic congestion primarily collapsed the time-bound express bus service, other unfavorable factors are identified as well. Thus, efforts by policy makers and planners to curb congestion and improve public transport must entail congestion pricing, proper traffic accidents management and the implementation of a comprehensive land-use-transportation-system master plan.},
  publisher = {{LAP LAMBERT Academic Publishing}},
  date = {2014-01-26},
  author = {Agyemang, Ernest},
  pagetotal = {164}
}

@article{agyemang_bus_2015a,
  langid = {english},
  title = {The {{Bus Rapid Transit System}} in the {{Greater Accra Metropolitan Area}}, {{Ghana}}: {{Looking Back}} to {{Look Forward}}},
  volume = {69},
  issn = {0029-1951, 1502-5292},
  url = {http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00291951.2014.992808},
  doi = {10.1080/00291951.2014.992808},
  shorttitle = {The {{Bus Rapid Transit System}} in the {{Greater Accra Metropolitan Area}}, {{Ghana}}},
  number = {1},
  journaltitle = {Norsk Geografisk Tidsskrift - Norwegian Journal of Geography},
  urldate = {2018-01-03},
  date = {2015-01},
  pages = {28--37},
  author = {Agyemang, Ernest}
}

@article{addo_transport_2002,
  langid = {english},
  title = {The {{Bus Rapid TranProvision}} of Urban Transport Services in {{Accra Greater Accra Metropolitan Area}}, {{Ghana}}: {{Looking Back}} to {{Look Forward}}},
  volume = {69},
  issn = {0029-1951, 1502-5292},
  url = {http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00291951.2014.992808},
  doi = {10.1080/00291951.2014.992808},
  shorttitle = {The {{Bus Rapid Transit System}} in the {{Greater Accra Metropolitan Area}}, {{Ghana}}},
  number = {1},
  journaltitle = {Norsk Geografisk Tidsskrift - Norwegian Journal of Geography},
  urldate = {2018-01-03},
  date = {2015-01},
  pages = {28--37},
  author = {Agyemang, Ernest}
}

@article{marques_how_2015,
  langid = {english},
  title = {How Infrastructure Can Promote Cycling in Cities: {{Lessons}} from {{Seville}}},
  volume = {53},
  issn = {07398859},
  url = {http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S073988591500061X},
  doi = {10.1016/j.retrec.2015.10.017},
  shorttitle = {How Infrastructure Can Promote Cycling in Cities},
  journaltitle = {Research in Transportation Economics},
  urldate = {2016-09-07},
  date = {2015-11},
  pages = {31--44},
  author = {Marqués, R. and Hernández-Herrador, V. and Calvo-Salazar, M. and García-Cebrián, J.A.}
}

@article{mueller_health_2018,
  title = {Health Impact Assessment of Cycling Network Expansions in {{European}} Cities},
  issn = {0091-7435},
  url = {http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0091743517304978},
  doi = {10.1016/j.ypmed.2017.12.011},
  abstract = {We conducted a health impact assessment (HIA) of cycling network expansions in seven European cities. We modeled the association between cycling network length and cycling mode share and estimated health impacts of the expansion of cycling networks. First, we performed a non-linear least square regression to assess the relationship between cycling network length and cycling mode share for 167 European cities. Second, we conducted a quantitative HIA for the seven cities of different scenarios (S) assessing how an expansion of the cycling network [i.e. 10\% (S1); 50\% (S2); 100\% (S3), and all-streets (S4)] would lead to an increase in cycling mode share and estimated mortality impacts thereof. We quantified mortality impacts for changes in physical activity, air pollution and traffic incidents. Third, we conducted a cost–benefit analysis. The cycling network length was associated with a cycling mode share of up to 24.7\% in European cities. The all-streets scenario (S4) produced greatest benefits through increases in cycling for London with 1210 premature deaths (95\% CI: 447–1972) avoidable annually, followed by Rome (433; 95\% CI: 170–695), Barcelona (248; 95\% CI: 86–410), Vienna (146; 95\% CI: 40–252), Zurich (58; 95\% CI: 16–100) and Antwerp (7; 95\% CI: 3–11). The largest cost–benefit ratios were found for the 10\% increase in cycling networks (S1). If all 167 European cities achieved a cycling mode share of 24.7\% over 10,000 premature deaths could be avoided annually. In European cities, expansions of cycling networks were associated with increases in cycling and estimated to provide health and economic benefits.},
  journaltitle = {Preventive Medicine},
  shortjournal = {Preventive Medicine},
  urldate = {2018-01-20},
  date = {2018-01-09},
  keywords = {Mortality,Open data,Cost–benefit analysis,Cycling network,Health impact assessment,Mode share},
  author = {Mueller, Natalie and Rojas-Rueda, David and Salmon, Maëlle and Martinez, David and Ambros, Albert and Brand, Christian and de Nazelle, Audrey and Dons, Evi and Gaupp-Berghausen, Mailin and Gerike, Regine and Götschi, Thomas and Iacorossi, Francesco and Panis, Luc Int and Kahlmeier, Sonja and Raser, Elisabeth and Nieuwenhuijsen, Mark},
  options = {useprefix=true}
}

@article{aldred_cycling_2017,
  langid = {english},
  title = {Cycling Provision Separated from Motor Traffic: A Systematic Review Exploring Whether Stated Preferences Vary by Gender and Age},
  volume = {37},
  issn = {0144-1647, 1464-5327},
  url = {https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/01441647.2016.1200156},
  doi = {10.1080/01441647.2016.1200156},
  shorttitle = {Cycling Provision Separated from Motor Traffic},
  number = {1},
  journaltitle = {Transport Reviews},
  urldate = {2018-01-20},
  date = {2017-01-02},
  pages = {29--55},
  author = {Aldred, Rachel and Elliott, Bridget and Woodcock, James and Goodman, Anna}
}

@article{turner_transport_1996,
  title = {Transport and Survival Strategies in a Developing Economy: Case Evidence from {{Accra}}, {{Ghana}}},
  volume = {4},
  issn = {0966-6923},
  url = {http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0966692396000191},
  doi = {10.1016/0966-6923(96)00019-1},
  shorttitle = {Transport and Survival Strategies in a Developing Economy},
  abstract = {This paper reports on a study of the urban poor adapting to their own poverty and to unreliable public transport services by task sharing among extended family units. It draws on material from interviews conducted in two low-income communities in Accra, Ghana. In typically large households, the practice of fostering children, hiring domestic servants and doorstep petty trading by elderly women are three notable strategies for relieving middle-aged adults from transport stress and under-provision, and enabling them to be wage earners. As resources, rather than responsibilities, children fetch and carry, and attend school in shifts. From a transport activity or survival network approach, these elements can be viewed as key strategies in the organization of travel and transport.},
  number = {3},
  journaltitle = {Journal of Transport Geography},
  shortjournal = {Journal of Transport Geography},
  urldate = {2018-01-22},
  date = {1996-09-01},
  pages = {161--168},
  keywords = {gender,activity analysis,developing countries,household organization,urban transport},
  author = {Turner, Jeff and Kwakye, Edward}
}

@Electronic{Abbas2017,
    Title                    = {Accra Wala: Mapping Mobility, Culture, and History in Accra, Ghana},
    Author                   = {Abbas,Yasmine and Clark, Gracia and Feld, Steven
        and Getz, Trevor and Grace, Joshua and Hagan, Erica and Klopp, Jackie
            and Korsah, Ayorkor and Kwarteng, Kirstie and Loh, Carolyn and
            Odoom, Yaw and Oduro-Frimpong, Joseph and Okoye, Victoria and
            Paller, Jeffrey and Quayson, Ato and Saddier, Simon and Voss, Jon},
    Month                    = {Feb},
    Organization             = {NEH Digital Projects for Public Discovery},
    Url                      = {https://ghanaonthego.files.wordpress.com/2017/02/narrative.pdf},
    Year                     = {2017}
}