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<!DOCTYPE html><html lang="zh-cmn-Hans"><head>
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<body><div id="readme" class="container"><article class="markdown-body entry-content"><hr>
<p>layout: post
title: "Infodemic: COVID-19 Conspiracy Theories"
date: 2020-09-30 13:31:47 +0100</p>
<h2 id="categories-jekyll-update">categories: jekyll update</h2>
<p>Welcome to the blog for the Arts and Humanities Research Council funded
project, “Infodemic”. Why “infodemic”? The Director General of the World
Health Organisation has warned that “we’re not just fighting an
epidemic; we’re fighting an infodemic. Fake news spreads faster and more
easily than this virus, and is just as dangerous.” The WHO defines an
infodemic as an “overabundance of information—some accurate, some
not—that makes it harder for people to find trustworthy sources and
reliable guidance when needed.” Conspiracy theories about the origin,
spread and implications of COVID-19 have become a notable genre within
this “overabundance of information.” Moreover, the pandemic seems to
have arrived into and exacerbated a perfect storm of social media
virality and political-cultural polarisation.</p>
<p>This research grant was awarded as part of the UKRI’s <a href="https://www.ukri.org/funding/funding-opportunities/ukri-open-call-for-research-and-innovation-ideas-to-address-covid-19/">rapid
response</a>
call for projects that tackle urgent questions regarding all aspects of
the COVID-19 pandemic. As a team, our expertise very much lies in the
humanities—in cultural studies, cultural history, critical theory, and
the digital humanities. Working across these fields, we will address the
political, cultural, communicational, and epistemological dimensions of
the current crisis by focusing on not only conspiracy theories as a
particularly sticky form of misinformation, but also the platforms on
which they circulate. By providing a clear-eyed analysis that cuts
through some of the hype and hysteria surrounding the proliferation of
coronavirus conspiracy theories, we will be able to make more convincing
recommendations about how to combat the most harmful forms.</p>
<p>Knight and Birchall have worked on a productive <a href="https://conspiracytheories.eu/">EU comparative research
project</a> before and it’s clear that work
comparing the place and function of conspiracy theories in different
regions is clearly needed. However, the focus of “Infodemic”—a
relatively fast turn-around, small project—is on English language
conspiracy theories only. While the political contexts of the UK, the
US, and to a lesser extent the EU will be our primary focus on this
occasion, many Covid-19 conspiracy theories have spread globally, albeit
displaying local adaptations.</p>
<p>Our blog will serve as a space for us to situate COVID-19 conspiracy
theories and new media platforms within social and political contexts,
respond quickly to new developments in the conspiracy landscape,
announce the findings of our data-led projects, publish our analyses of
particular case studies, and discuss the interventions of our project
partners: the <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/ioe/">Institute of Education</a> at
University College London, <a href="https://senseaboutscience.org/">Sense about
Science</a> and <a href="https://firstdraftnews.org/">First
Draft</a>, as well as <a href="http://densitydesign.org/">Density
Design</a>. Ultimately, this blog is the
experimental notebook for a forthcoming academic book on COVID-19
conspiracy theories.</p>
<p>While there are five core members of the research team—<a href="https://www.research.manchester.ac.uk/portal/en/researchers/peter-knight(45bda96e-6847-463a-8079-313347a4b570).html">Peter
Knight</a>
from Manchester University; <a href="https://www.kcl.ac.uk/people/dr-clare-birchall">Clare
Birchall</a>, <a href="https://www.kcl.ac.uk/people/liliana-bounegru">Liliana
Bounegru</a>, and <a href="https://www.kcl.ac.uk/people/dr-jonathan-gray">Jonathan
Gray</a> from King’s College
London, and <a href="https://www.uva.nl/profiel/t/u/m.d.tuters/m.d.tuters.html">Marc
Tuters</a> from
the <a href="https://oilab.eu/">OILab</a> at University of Amsterdam—the nature of
data research means that there are far more collaborators than we can
name here. As well as our Research Assistants, <a href="http://www.bbk.ac.uk/english/our-staff/full-time-academic-staff/sean-obrien">Sean
O’Brien</a>
and <a href="http://www.favstats.eu/">Fabio Votta</a>, and our Research Associate,
<a href="https://amsterdam.academia.edu/EVdeKeulenaar">Emillie de Keulenaar</a>, we
have a multitude of student collaborators taking our courses and
Winter/Summer Schools and working on different sub-projects throughout
the year. We will be sure to credit these students where possible. In
addition, having been involved in a number of research networks and
projects on conspiracy theories, including the EU COST-funded
<a href="https://conspiracytheories.eu/">Comparative Analysis of Conspiracy Theories in
Europe</a>, we very much consider ourselves
to be working in a wider network of conspiracy scholars.</p>
<p>Knight and Birchall will be conducting macro conjunctural analyses and
micro close readings of particular case studies. Bounegru and Gray are
collaborating with <a href="https://firstdraftnews.org/about/">First Draft</a> and
the <a href="https://www.publicdatalab.org/">Public Data Lab</a> to produce a
follow up to their <a href="https://fakenews.publicdatalab.org/">Field Guide to Fake
News</a> specifically on COVID-19
conspiracy theories. They will be reaching out to journalists, providing
what they call “recipes” that can assist in the writing of investigative
pieces about coronavirus conspiracy theories. Tuters and his team at the
OILab will be collecting and analysing data scraped from various social
media platforms as well as monitoring the flow of conspiracist ideas
between mainstream platforms and the “deep vernacular web” (anonymous
forums and image boards like 8kun and 4chan). The OILab has already held
one data sprint with students (over the Summer of 2020). It conducted
preliminary research on our growing database and produced two
reports—one on what they name “conspiracy tribes” and another on the
<a href="https://wiki.digitalmethods.net/Dmi/SummerSchool2020ModeratingCovidMisinfo">deplatforming of COVID-19 conspiracy
theories</a>.
We will be drawing from and building on these in the coming months.</p>
<p>While we will have more to say about the potential pitfalls of
conducting polls about conspiracy theories in later posts, the figures
hint at a largescale phenomenon. Polls in the
<a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2020/04/what-can-coronavirus-tell-us-about-conspiracy-theories/610894/">US</a>
have shown that 30% of people think that the COVID-19 virus was created
in a lab, while an <a href="https://www.ofcom.org.uk/research-and-data/tv-radio-and-on-demand/news-media/coronavirus-news-consumption-attitudes-behaviour">Ofcom
poll</a>
in the UK has shown that 40% of people struggle to know what is and what
is not true about COVID-19. Conspiracy theories can undermine trust in
medical and scientific authorities; they can even, on occasion, lead to
violent action (for example, the vandalisation of mobile phone masts by
people who believe in the theory that 5G radio waves are actually
spreading the virus). This project will examine how and why conspiracy
theories circulate in the online misinformation ecosystem. We will
analyse which rumours of conspiracy have gained most traction, where
they have come from, how they are transmitted, why people are attracted
to them, what harms they may cause, and what, if anything, should be
done about them.</p>
<p>We use the term “conspiracy theory” in this blog and the project’s title
but recognise that it is a highly contested term that raises more
questions than it answers. There is, by now, a wealth of research on
this term exploring its historical precursors and etymological roots,
the pejorative connotations it holds and the way it is mobilised in
ideological and normative ways and we will be engaging with this work in
future posts. We begin with a definition of conspiracy theories as
explanations of events that veer away from consensus reality or the
official version to suggest that a conspiring group with malign intent
is behind those events. (Of course, what counts as the “official
version” or “consensus reality” is constantly shifting, particularly
today when those in power often offer scientifically unproven “official”
accounts!) We consider conspiracy theories to operate as a particularly
sticky subset of misinformation (unwittingly false information),
disinformation (knowingly false information), or fake news (false
information produced to maximize clicks for profit). It might be best to
say that conspiracy theory constitutes a form of <a href="https://datasociety.net/library/lexicon-of-lies/">“problematic
information”</a>—Caroline
Jack’s umbrella term for a range of post-truth discursive phenomena.</p>
<p>We will explore all of this in later posts, but at this point we want to
make it clear that we start from a position of knowing that we are all,
to some degree, “conspiracy theorists.” We all, that is, entertain some
unfounded, speculative narratives and fears about the way power and
politics operate. As academics who cut our teeth on a diet of literary
and critical theory, we share with conspiracy theorists a taste for the
“hermeneutics of suspicion,” to use Paul Ricoeur’s phrase. Because of
this link that binds us to conspiracy theory in sometimes uncomfortable
ways, we are not in the business of diagnosing or pathologising
conspiracy theorists. We want to be mindful of the pitfalls of engaging
with what <a href="https://estsjournal.org/index.php/ests/article/view/188">Noortje
Marres</a> calls
“a politics of demarcation.” Spending time defending our own rational
position risks not giving adequate thought to how we can, as Marres puts
it, “develop new strategies to secure a central role for knowledge in
public life.” It also distracts us from the underlying causes of a turn
to conspiracy theories.</p>
<p>Indeed, conspiracy theories, including COVID-19 conspiracy theories,
often reflect genuine and legitimate concerns. The conspiracy theory
that suggests COVID-19 was created in a lab, for example, might point
towards historical examples of states exercising power over its
citizens’ bodies or perhaps worries about the stockpiling and use of
biological weapons. 5G conspiracy theories might tap into the very real
ways in which new technologies are enabling and legitimating invasive
but quotidian forms of control and surveillance. And while any mention
of a “cabal” or “global elite” can have disturbing anti-Semitic
resonances, theories that fear such activity might also articulate
suspicion of privilege and the myth of meritocracy, offering a Manichean
narrative of class antagonism. As <a href="http://cultureandcommunication.org/galloway/there-is-no-rebellion-theres-only-me-earning-a-paycheck">Alexander
Galloway</a>,
after Fredric Jameson, puts it, “conspiracies are one of the few ways in
which class and anti-capitalism—otherwise banned from mainline
discourse—pierce through the ideological fog and imprint themselves
directly on popular culture.” <a href="https://novaramedia.com/2020/08/16/trip-12-the-cosmic-right/">Jeremy
Gilbert</a>
has commented on how the deep mistrust of public institutions in
COVID-19 conspiracy theories isn’t so surprising when placed within the
context of neoliberal free-market beliefs which have prompted the
transformation of the state from that which might protect people from
the worst excesses of capitalism to that which will sacrifice people to
those worst excesses. This is not to say the conspiracy theories are
“right,” but that they tap into concerns about, and historical examples
of, abuses of power. Sometimes paranoia is a “rational” response.</p>
<p>While we have reservations about approaches that only seek to
pathologise or ridicule conspiracy theorists, we recognise that the
pandemic, and the racially-charged, politically polarised “culture wars”
which predate it, have produced a different, often more troubling, edge
to conspiracy narratives compared to those that entertained us in some
previous eras. (Remember the fun we had with Roswell UFO conspiracy
theories in the 1990s?) Moreover, the stakes are that much higher during
a pandemic in which the quality of information and knowledge can be the
difference between life and death.</p>
<p>This new conspiracy climate cannot be divorced from either the political
polarisation already mentioned, but also today’s new media economy and
ecology. To contextualise online conspiracy theories, therefore, means
looking at the Internet in two ways. First, we need to consider the
political economy of digital platforms and its relationship to
“<a href="https://www.wiley.com/en-us/Platform+Capitalism-p-9781509504862">platform
capitalism</a>”,
“<a href="https://uk.sagepub.com/en-gb/eur/the-data-gaze/book257707">the data
gaze</a>”,
“<a href="https://shoshanazuboff.com/book/about/">surveillance capitalism</a>”, and
the “<a href="https://www.wiley.com/en-us/The+Ecology+of+Attention-p-9781509503735">ecology of
attention</a>”.
And second, we need to address the affordances for world-building,
storytelling, networking, and mobilising, but also, scare-mongering,
amplifying, and commodifying that are offered by different mainstream
social media platforms as well as spaces characteristic of the deep
vernacular web. The convergence of these political and digital contexts
mean that it is high time to explore approaches and responses to
conspiracy theory that encourage suspicion to be re-directed back onto
not only conspiracy theory itself in a reflexive move, but also the
largely self-regulated, tax-reluctant/avoidant, near monopolistic social
media platforms as well as political actors that benefit from social
atomisation and chaos. (And yes, we are aware that our analyses of power
risk sounding conspiratorial themselves: something we will explore in
later posts concerning the relationship between structure and agency.)</p>
<p>The questions we listed in our original research proposal, written early
in the pandemic and infodemic, include the following:</p>
<ol>
<li>Which conspiracy rumours (in English) about COVID-19 have gained most
engagement and traction? Which ones are most significant in the UK?</li>
<li>Which social media platforms have been the most important vectors for
the spread of these narratives and memes? Does each platform create its
own distinctive conspiracy theory subcultures? How do conspiracy memes
and narratives mutate as they spread from the margins to mainstream?</li>
<li>How are these coronavirus conspiracy theories transmitted? What is
the comparative significance of state-sponsored channels of
disinformation; influencers such as politicians and celebrities;
opportunistic conspiracy ‘entrepreneurs’ and ‘super spreaders’; and
commenting/sharing at the grassroots level? How do the varying
infrastructural logics and economic incentives of the different
platforms affect the spread of conspiracist misinformation?</li>
<li>Where do these COVID-19 theories come from? How do they relate to
existing conspiracy theories, and how have they been adapted for this
new context? How do they compare with conspiracy theories in previous
pandemics?</li>
</ol>
<p>These questions remain important and pressing, and other researchers and
journalists have already started to tackle some of them. As we begin
holding our regular team meetings, the questions we want to ask and the
projects we want to undertake evolve and adapt in response to the almost
hourly updates that we read concerning anti-lockdown activism taking
place on and offline, the convergence of
<a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-trending-53997203">QAnon</a> (and
Q-adjacent) conspiracy theories with the vaccine hesitancy spectrum (as
well as its spread to some surprising social media locations), the
sudden release and sharing of certain conspiracist videos (such as
“Plandemic” and its sequel), the breakdown of traditional political
categories of Left and Right evident in the response to lockdown
measures, and the continued weaponisation and/or cynically commercial
employment of COVID-19 conspiracy theories. We are particularly mindful
of the forthcoming presidential election in the US, as well as the
ongoing Brexit negotiations between the UK and EU and will follow
closely how these might be reflected in COVID-19 conspiracy theories.
Our approach, therefore, is highly flexible—able to respond to unfolding
events that appear in COVID-19 conspiracy theories—and anticipatory.</p>
<p>The Latin root of conspiracy is <em>conspirare:</em> to breathe together. It’s
the first thing one of us tells her students when they begin to study
conspiracy fictions. She does so in order to encourage them to think
about the intimacy, trust and understanding necessary for an actual
conspiratorial group to succeed. With a highly contagious, sometimes
fatal, respiratory disease circulating in our communities, it’s not only
legally dubious to breathe together in ways that conspiracies
necessitate, it’s also physically dangerous. Breathing together is the
last thing we should be doing right now. (We hope deep state actors are
wearing masks!) Turning to acts of sharing conspiracy <em>theories</em> rather
than plots to conspire, the internet in general, and social media in
particular, have allowed people who might otherwise have remained lone,
marginalised voices to find and breathe with (at least remotely) fellow
sceptics of consensus reality. They use the language of likes, shares,
retweets, posts, memes, videos, comments, and blogs, giving oxygen to
ideas that might, in pre-internet eras, have died out. It is perhaps a
supreme irony that those who believe least in the reality and dangers of
COVID-19 can maintain a safe distance through their preference for acts
of digital confluence.</p>
<p>Under conditions that nobody could have wished for, COVID-19 has
produced an extraordinarily potent “stress test”, a convergence of
economic, health and political crises, for us to consider the
astonishing hold conspiracy theories can have on the popular (and often
populist) imagination.</p>
<p><em>This post is published under the terms of the <a href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0)</a> licence.</em></p>
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