diff --git a/.github/workflows/backward_model_load_check.yml b/.github/workflows/backward_model_load_check.yml
index dc831a0be57..ad8f6add281 100644
--- a/.github/workflows/backward_model_load_check.yml
+++ b/.github/workflows/backward_model_load_check.yml
@@ -36,7 +36,7 @@ jobs:
           cd ..
           auditwheel repair vowpal_wabbit/wheel_last_commit/*whl -w audit_last_commit/
       - name: Upload built wheel
-        uses: actions/upload-artifact@v1
+        uses: actions/upload-artifact@v4
         with:
           name: test_manylinux_amd64_3.10
           path: audit_last_commit/
@@ -50,7 +50,7 @@ jobs:
         with:
           python-version: '3.10' 
       - name: Download artifact
-        uses: actions/download-artifact@v1
+        uses: actions/download-artifact@v4
         with:
           name: test_manylinux_amd64_3.10
           path: built_wheel
@@ -60,7 +60,7 @@ jobs:
           pip install built_wheel/*.whl
           python ./test/run_tests_model_gen_and_load.py --generate_models --skip_missing_args --skip_pr_tests "${{ github.event.pull_request.title }}"
       - name: Upload generated file
-        uses: actions/upload-artifact@v2
+        uses: actions/upload-artifact@v4
         with:
           name: vw_generated_models
           path: ~/.vw_runtests_model_gen_working_dir/*
@@ -75,7 +75,7 @@ jobs:
       - uses: actions/checkout@v1
         with:
           submodules: recursive
-      - uses: actions/download-artifact@v1
+      - uses: actions/download-artifact@v4
         with:
           name: vw_generated_models
           path: .vw_runtests_model_gen_working_dir
diff --git a/.github/workflows/build_docs.yml b/.github/workflows/build_docs.yml
index d4813c73d57..058cbf2078d 100644
--- a/.github/workflows/build_docs.yml
+++ b/.github/workflows/build_docs.yml
@@ -29,7 +29,7 @@ jobs:
       - name: Build docs
         run: nix build --print-build-logs .#vw-cpp-docs
       - name: Upload built docs
-        uses: actions/upload-artifact@v1
+        uses: actions/upload-artifact@v4
         with:
           name: cxx_docs
           path: result/html/
@@ -49,7 +49,7 @@ jobs:
       - name: Build dump options
         run: cmake --build build -t vw-dump-options
       - name: Upload vw-dump-options
-        uses: actions/upload-artifact@v1
+        uses: actions/upload-artifact@v4
         with:
           name: vw-dump-options
           path: build/utl/dump_options/vw-dump-options
@@ -68,7 +68,7 @@ jobs:
           pip wheel . -w wheel_output/ --global-option --cmake-options="-DSTATIC_LINK_VW_JAVA=On;-DPython_INCLUDE_DIR='/opt/python/cp310-cp310/include/python3.10/'" --verbose
           auditwheel repair wheel_output/*whl -w audit_output/
       - name: Upload built wheel
-        uses: actions/upload-artifact@v1
+        uses: actions/upload-artifact@v4
         with:
           name: python_wheel
           path: audit_output/
@@ -87,11 +87,11 @@ jobs:
         if: ${{ github.event_name == 'push' }}
         run: echo "VW_SPHINX_VERSION_OVERRIDE=latest" >> $GITHUB_ENV
       - name: Download Wheel
-        uses: actions/download-artifact@v1
+        uses: actions/download-artifact@v4
         with:
           name: python_wheel
       - name: Download vw-dump-options
-        uses: actions/download-artifact@v1
+        uses: actions/download-artifact@v4
         with:
           name: vw-dump-options
       - name: Change permissions to rvw-dump-options
@@ -120,7 +120,7 @@ jobs:
           cd python/docs
           make html
       - name: Upload built docs
-        uses: actions/upload-artifact@v1
+        uses: actions/upload-artifact@v4
         with:
           name: python_docs
           path: python/docs/build/
@@ -137,11 +137,11 @@ jobs:
         if: ${{ github.event_name == 'release' || github.event_name == 'workflow_dispatch' }}
         run: echo "FOLDER_NAME=$(echo ${GITHUB_REF:10})" >> $GITHUB_ENV
       - name: Download c++ Docs
-        uses: actions/download-artifact@v1
+        uses: actions/download-artifact@v4
         with:
           name: cxx_docs
       - name: Download Python Docs
-        uses: actions/download-artifact@v1
+        uses: actions/download-artifact@v4
         with:
           name: python_docs
       - name: Print contents of directory
diff --git a/.github/workflows/dotnet_nugets.yml b/.github/workflows/dotnet_nugets.yml
index 8b2466fe1e4..5527a727302 100644
--- a/.github/workflows/dotnet_nugets.yml
+++ b/.github/workflows/dotnet_nugets.yml
@@ -115,7 +115,7 @@ jobs:
           echo "NugetFileName=$NugetFileName" >> $GITHUB_OUTPUT
       - name: Upload Combined
         if: ${{ startsWith(matrix.config.os, 'windows') }}
-        uses: actions/upload-artifact@v1
+        uses: actions/upload-artifact@v4
         with:
           name: VowpalWabbit.${{steps.get_version.outputs.version}}.nupkg
           path: nuget_staging/${{ steps.generate-nuget.outputs.NugetFileName }}
@@ -130,7 +130,7 @@ jobs:
           NugetFileName=(*runtime*.nupkg)
           echo "NugetFileName=${NugetFileName[0]}" >> $GITHUB_OUTPUT
       - name: Upload .NET Core Runtime
-        uses: actions/upload-artifact@v1
+        uses: actions/upload-artifact@v4
         with:
           name: VowpalWabbit.runtime.${{matrix.config.runtime_id}}.${{steps.get_version.outputs.version}}.nupkg
           path: nuget_staging/${{ steps.generate-runtime-nuget.outputs.NugetFileName }}
@@ -167,19 +167,19 @@ jobs:
       # Download the previously built Nuget packages
       - name: Clear nuget cache
         run: dotnet nuget locals all --clear
-      - uses: actions/download-artifact@v1
+      - uses: actions/download-artifact@v4
         with:
           name: VowpalWabbit.${{steps.get_version.outputs.version}}.nupkg
           path: downloaded_nugets
-      - uses: actions/download-artifact@v1
+      - uses: actions/download-artifact@v4
         with:
           name: VowpalWabbit.runtime.win-x64.${{steps.get_version.outputs.version}}.nupkg
           path: downloaded_nugets
-      - uses: actions/download-artifact@v1
+      - uses: actions/download-artifact@v4
         with:
           name: VowpalWabbit.runtime.linux-x64.${{steps.get_version.outputs.version}}.nupkg
           path: downloaded_nugets
-      - uses: actions/download-artifact@v1
+      - uses: actions/download-artifact@v4
         with:
           name: VowpalWabbit.runtime.osx-x64.${{steps.get_version.outputs.version}}.nupkg
           path: downloaded_nugets
@@ -226,19 +226,19 @@ jobs:
       # Download the previously built Nuget packages
       - name: Clear nuget cache
         run: dotnet nuget locals all --clear
-      - uses: actions/download-artifact@v1
+      - uses: actions/download-artifact@v4
         with:
           name: VowpalWabbit.${{steps.get_version.outputs.version}}.nupkg
           path: downloaded_nugets
-      - uses: actions/download-artifact@v1
+      - uses: actions/download-artifact@v4
         with:
           name: VowpalWabbit.runtime.win-x64.${{steps.get_version.outputs.version}}.nupkg
           path: downloaded_nugets
-      - uses: actions/download-artifact@v1
+      - uses: actions/download-artifact@v4
         with:
           name: VowpalWabbit.runtime.linux-x64.${{steps.get_version.outputs.version}}.nupkg
           path: downloaded_nugets
-      - uses: actions/download-artifact@v1
+      - uses: actions/download-artifact@v4
         with:
           name: VowpalWabbit.runtime.osx-x64.${{steps.get_version.outputs.version}}.nupkg
           path: downloaded_nugets
@@ -291,19 +291,19 @@ jobs:
       # Download the previously built Nuget packages
       - name: Clear nuget cache
         run: dotnet nuget locals all --clear
-      - uses: actions/download-artifact@v1
+      - uses: actions/download-artifact@v4
         with:
           name: VowpalWabbit.${{steps.get_version.outputs.version}}.nupkg
           path: downloaded_nugets
-      - uses: actions/download-artifact@v1
+      - uses: actions/download-artifact@v4
         with:
           name: VowpalWabbit.runtime.win-x64.${{steps.get_version.outputs.version}}.nupkg
           path: downloaded_nugets
-      - uses: actions/download-artifact@v1
+      - uses: actions/download-artifact@v4
         with:
           name: VowpalWabbit.runtime.linux-x64.${{steps.get_version.outputs.version}}.nupkg
           path: downloaded_nugets
-      - uses: actions/download-artifact@v1
+      - uses: actions/download-artifact@v4
         with:
           name: VowpalWabbit.runtime.osx-x64.${{steps.get_version.outputs.version}}.nupkg
           path: downloaded_nugets
diff --git a/.github/workflows/forward_model_load_check.yml b/.github/workflows/forward_model_load_check.yml
index 294fffb840a..18478eddd13 100644
--- a/.github/workflows/forward_model_load_check.yml
+++ b/.github/workflows/forward_model_load_check.yml
@@ -33,7 +33,7 @@ jobs:
           /opt/python/cp310-cp310/bin/pip wheel . -w wheel_output/ --global-option --cmake-options="-DSTATIC_LINK_VW_JAVA=On;-DPython_INCLUDE_DIR='/opt/python/cp310-cp310/include/python3.10/'" --verbose
           auditwheel repair wheel_output/*whl -w audit_output/
       - name: Upload built wheel
-        uses: actions/upload-artifact@v1
+        uses: actions/upload-artifact@v4
         with:
           name: test_manylinux_amd64_3.10
           path: audit_output/
@@ -47,7 +47,7 @@ jobs:
         with:
           python-version: '3.10' 
       - name: Download artifact
-        uses: actions/download-artifact@v1
+        uses: actions/download-artifact@v4
         with:
           name: test_manylinux_amd64_3.10
           path: built_wheel
@@ -57,7 +57,7 @@ jobs:
           pip install built_wheel/*.whl
           python ./test/run_tests_model_gen_and_load.py --generate_models --skip_pr_tests "${{ github.event.pull_request.title }}"
       - name: Upload generated file
-        uses: actions/upload-artifact@v2
+        uses: actions/upload-artifact@v4
         with:
           name: vw_generated_models
           path: ~/.vw_runtests_model_gen_working_dir/*
@@ -72,7 +72,7 @@ jobs:
       - uses: actions/checkout@v1
         with:
           submodules: recursive
-      - uses: actions/download-artifact@v1
+      - uses: actions/download-artifact@v4
         with:
           name: vw_generated_models
           path: .vw_runtests_model_gen_working_dir
diff --git a/.github/workflows/lint.yml b/.github/workflows/lint.yml
index 72c46368688..6aa29613ee3 100644
--- a/.github/workflows/lint.yml
+++ b/.github/workflows/lint.yml
@@ -34,7 +34,7 @@ jobs:
           ${{ matrix.config.base_path }}bin/pip wheel . -w wheel_output/ --global-option --cmake-options="-DSTATIC_LINK_VW_JAVA=On;-DPython_INCLUDE_DIR='${{ matrix.config.base_path }}include/${{ matrix.config.include_dir_name }}'" --verbose
           auditwheel repair wheel_output/*whl -w audit_output/
       - name: Upload built wheel
-        uses: actions/upload-artifact@v1
+        uses: actions/upload-artifact@v4
         with:
           name: wheel_${{ matrix.config.version }}
           path: audit_output/
@@ -53,7 +53,7 @@ jobs:
         with:
           submodules: recursive
       - name: Download Wheel
-        uses: actions/download-artifact@v1
+        uses: actions/download-artifact@v4
         with:
           name: wheel_${{ matrix.config.version }}
       - name: Install dependencies
diff --git a/.github/workflows/native_nugets.yml b/.github/workflows/native_nugets.yml
index f7dd9ba30c6..671a6ecc0ed 100644
--- a/.github/workflows/native_nugets.yml
+++ b/.github/workflows/native_nugets.yml
@@ -81,7 +81,7 @@ jobs:
           $NugetFileName = Get-ChildItem *.nupkg -name
           echo "NugetFileName=$NugetFileName" >> $GITHUB_OUTPUT
       - name: Upload
-        uses: actions/upload-artifact@v1
+        uses: actions/upload-artifact@v4
         with:
           name: VowpalWabbitNative-${{matrix.toolset}}-x64.${{ steps.get_version.outputs.version }}.nupkg
           path: nuget_staging/${{ steps.generate-nuget.outputs.NugetFileName }}
@@ -115,7 +115,7 @@ jobs:
           echo "version=$version" >> $GITHUB_OUTPUT
 
       # Download and install nuget
-      - uses: actions/download-artifact@v1
+      - uses: actions/download-artifact@v4
         with:
           name: VowpalWabbitNative-${{matrix.toolset}}-x64.${{ steps.get_version.outputs.version }}.nupkg
           path: downloaded_nugets
diff --git a/.github/workflows/python_wheels.yml b/.github/workflows/python_wheels.yml
index 21e216412e4..fe8578727fc 100644
--- a/.github/workflows/python_wheels.yml
+++ b/.github/workflows/python_wheels.yml
@@ -46,7 +46,7 @@ jobs:
           ${{ matrix.config.base_path }}bin/pip wheel . -w wheel_output/ --global-option --cmake-options="-DSTATIC_LINK_VW_JAVA=On;-DPython_INCLUDE_DIR='${{ matrix.config.base_path }}include/${{ matrix.config.include_dir_name }}'" --verbose
           auditwheel repair wheel_output/*whl -w audit_output/
       - name: Upload built wheel
-        uses: actions/upload-artifact@v1
+        uses: actions/upload-artifact@v4
         with:
           name: manylinux_amd64_${{ matrix.config.version }}
           path: audit_output/
@@ -64,7 +64,7 @@ jobs:
       - uses: actions/checkout@v1
         with:
           submodules: recursive
-      - uses: actions/download-artifact@v1
+      - uses: actions/download-artifact@v4
         with:
           name: manylinux_amd64_${{ matrix.version }}
           path: built_wheel
@@ -103,7 +103,7 @@ jobs:
         shell: bash
         run: python setup.py sdist
       - name: Upload built wheel
-        uses: actions/upload-artifact@v2
+        uses: actions/upload-artifact@v4
         with:
           name: python_source_distribution
           path: dist/*.tar.gz
@@ -117,7 +117,7 @@ jobs:
         with:
           python-version: '3.10'
           architecture: 'x64'
-      - uses: actions/download-artifact@v1
+      - uses: actions/download-artifact@v4
         with:
           name: python_source_distribution
       - name: Install dependencies
@@ -169,7 +169,7 @@ jobs:
             bash -exc '${{ matrix.config.base_path }}bin/pip wheel . -w wheel_output/ --global-option --cmake-options="-DSTATIC_LINK_VW_JAVA=On;-DPython_INCLUDE_DIR='${{ matrix.config.base_path }}include/${{ matrix.config.include_dir_name }}'" --verbose && \
             auditwheel repair wheel_output/*whl -w audit_output/'
     - name: Upload built wheel
-      uses: actions/upload-artifact@v1
+      uses: actions/upload-artifact@v4
       with:
         name: manylinux_aarch64_${{ matrix.config.version }}
         path: audit_output/
@@ -196,7 +196,7 @@ jobs:
     - name: Set up QEMU
       id: qemu
       uses: docker/setup-qemu-action@v1
-    - uses: actions/download-artifact@v1
+    - uses: actions/download-artifact@v4
       with:
         name: manylinux_aarch64_${{ matrix.config.version }}
         path: built_wheel
@@ -247,7 +247,7 @@ jobs:
           conda install python=${{ matrix.config.version }} wheel zlib boost py-boost flatbuffers
           pip wheel . -w wheel_output/ --global-option --cmake-options="-DSTATIC_LINK_VW_JAVA=On;-DPython_INCLUDE_DIR=\"$CONDA_PREFIX/include/${{ matrix.config.include_dir_name }}\"" --verbose
       - name: Upload built wheel
-        uses: actions/upload-artifact@v1
+        uses: actions/upload-artifact@v4
         with:
           name: macos_amd64_${{ matrix.config.version }}
           path: wheel_output/
@@ -266,7 +266,7 @@ jobs:
       - uses: actions/setup-python@v2
         with:
           python-version: ${{ matrix.version }}
-      - uses: actions/download-artifact@v1
+      - uses: actions/download-artifact@v4
         with:
           name: macos_amd64_${{ matrix.version }}
           path: built_wheel
@@ -332,7 +332,7 @@ jobs:
           pip install wheel
           pip wheel . -w ${{github.workspace}}\\wheel_output --global-option --vcpkg-root="${{ env.VCPKG_ROOT }}" --global-option --cmake-generator="Visual Studio 16 2019" --global-option --cmake-options="-DVCPKG_OVERLAY_PORTS=${{github.workspace}}\\vowpal_wabbit\\${{ matrix.config.overlay_ports }}"  --verbose
       - name: Upload built wheel
-        uses: actions/upload-artifact@v1
+        uses: actions/upload-artifact@v4
         with:
           name: windows_amd64_${{ matrix.config.version }}
           path: wheel_output
@@ -352,7 +352,7 @@ jobs:
       - uses: actions/setup-python@v2
         with:
           python-version: ${{ matrix.version }}
-      - uses: actions/download-artifact@v1
+      - uses: actions/download-artifact@v4
         with:
           name: windows_amd64_${{ matrix.version }}
           path: built_wheel
diff --git a/.github/workflows/run_benchmarks_manual.yml b/.github/workflows/run_benchmarks_manual.yml
index b2a5cf022e3..ed2224ebf6a 100644
--- a/.github/workflows/run_benchmarks_manual.yml
+++ b/.github/workflows/run_benchmarks_manual.yml
@@ -29,7 +29,7 @@ jobs:
         shell: bash
         run: cp ./.scripts/linux/*benchmarks.sh test/benchmarks/
       - name: Upload benchmark module
-        uses: actions/upload-artifact@v2
+        uses: actions/upload-artifact@v4
         with:
           name: benchmark-module
           path: test/benchmarks/
@@ -43,7 +43,7 @@ jobs:
         shell: bash
         run: rm -rf test/benchmarks
       - name: Download master's benchmark module
-        uses: actions/download-artifact@v2
+        uses: actions/download-artifact@v4
         with:
           name: benchmark-module
           path: test/benchmarks/
@@ -63,13 +63,13 @@ jobs:
         shell: bash
         run: ./.scripts/linux/run-benchmarks.sh base-benchmarks.json
       - name: Upload ${{ github.event.inputs.base_ref }} benchmark results
-        uses: actions/upload-artifact@v2
+        uses: actions/upload-artifact@v4
         with:
           name: base-benchmarks
           path: base-benchmarks.json
           if-no-files-found: error
       - name: Upload benchmark compare
-        uses: actions/upload-artifact@v2
+        uses: actions/upload-artifact@v4
         with:
           name: benchmark-compare
           path: benchmark/tools/
@@ -87,18 +87,18 @@ jobs:
           submodules: recursive
           ref: ${{ github.event.inputs.compare_ref }}
       - name: Download ${{ github.event.inputs.base_ref }} benchmark results
-        uses: actions/download-artifact@v2
+        uses: actions/download-artifact@v4
         with:
           name: base-benchmarks
       - name: Download benchmark compare
-        uses: actions/download-artifact@v2
+        uses: actions/download-artifact@v4
         with:
           name: benchmark-compare
       - name: Remove existing benchmark module (in favour of master)
         shell: bash
         run: rm -rf test/benchmarks
       - name: Download master's benchmark module
-        uses: actions/download-artifact@v2
+        uses: actions/download-artifact@v4
         with:
           name: benchmark-module
           path: test/benchmarks/
diff --git a/.github/workflows/valgrind.yml b/.github/workflows/valgrind.yml
index f24630265cb..227701b61b7 100644
--- a/.github/workflows/valgrind.yml
+++ b/.github/workflows/valgrind.yml
@@ -24,19 +24,19 @@ jobs:
           cmake -S . -B build -G Ninja -DCMAKE_BUILD_TYPE=Release -DBUILD_EXPERIMENTAL_BINDING=On -DVW_FEAT_FLATBUFFERS=On -DVW_FEAT_CSV=On -DVW_FEAT_CB_GRAPH_FEEDBACK=On -DSTD_INV_SQRT=ON
           cmake --build build
       - name: Upload vw binary
-        uses: actions/upload-artifact@v2
+        uses: actions/upload-artifact@v4
         with:
           name: vw
           path: build/vowpalwabbit/cli/vw
           if-no-files-found: error
       - name: Upload spanning_tree binary
-        uses: actions/upload-artifact@v2
+        uses: actions/upload-artifact@v4
         with:
           name: spanning_tree
           path: build/vowpalwabbit/spanning_tree_bin/spanning_tree
           if-no-files-found: error
       - name: Upload to_flatbuff binary
-        uses: actions/upload-artifact@v2
+        uses: actions/upload-artifact@v4
         with:
           name: to_flatbuff
           path: build/utl/flatbuffer/to_flatbuff
@@ -62,13 +62,13 @@ jobs:
       - uses: actions/checkout@v1
         with:
           submodules: recursive
-      - uses: actions/download-artifact@v2
+      - uses: actions/download-artifact@v4
         with:
           name: vw
-      - uses: actions/download-artifact@v2
+      - uses: actions/download-artifact@v4
         with:
           name: spanning_tree
-      - uses: actions/download-artifact@v2
+      - uses: actions/download-artifact@v4
         with:
           name: to_flatbuff
       - name: run tests
diff --git a/ext_libs/vcpkg b/ext_libs/vcpkg
index 53bef8994c5..a7b6122f6b6 160000
--- a/ext_libs/vcpkg
+++ b/ext_libs/vcpkg
@@ -1 +1 @@
-Subproject commit 53bef8994c541b6561884a8395ea35715ece75db
+Subproject commit a7b6122f6b6504d16d96117336a0562693579933
diff --git a/vowpalwabbit/config/src/cli_help_formatter.cc b/vowpalwabbit/config/src/cli_help_formatter.cc
index 8cc6dfe8a69..530d20028c0 100644
--- a/vowpalwabbit/config/src/cli_help_formatter.cc
+++ b/vowpalwabbit/config/src/cli_help_formatter.cc
@@ -8,6 +8,7 @@
 #include "vw/config/options.h"
 
 #include <fmt/format.h>
+#include <fmt/ranges.h>
 
 #include <sstream>
 #include <string>
@@ -191,4 +192,4 @@ std::string cli_help_formatter::format_help(const std::vector<option_group_defin
   }
 
   return overall_ss.str();
-}
\ No newline at end of file
+}
diff --git a/vowpalwabbit/core/include/vw/core/automl_impl.h b/vowpalwabbit/core/include/vw/core/automl_impl.h
index 4a446668609..0d1b35de8b8 100644
--- a/vowpalwabbit/core/include/vw/core/automl_impl.h
+++ b/vowpalwabbit/core/include/vw/core/automl_impl.h
@@ -334,7 +334,7 @@ template <>
 class formatter<VW::reductions::automl::automl_state> : public formatter<std::string>
 {
 public:
-  auto format(VW::reductions::automl::automl_state c, format_context& ctx) -> decltype(ctx.out())
+  auto format(VW::reductions::automl::automl_state c, format_context& ctx) const -> decltype(ctx.out())
   {
     return formatter<std::string>::format(std::string{VW::to_string(c)}, ctx);
   }
@@ -344,7 +344,7 @@ template <>
 class formatter<VW::reductions::automl::config_state> : public formatter<std::string>
 {
 public:
-  auto format(VW::reductions::automl::config_state c, format_context& ctx) -> decltype(ctx.out())
+  auto format(VW::reductions::automl::config_state c, format_context& ctx) const -> decltype(ctx.out())
   {
     return formatter<std::string>::format(std::string{VW::to_string(c)}, ctx);
   }
@@ -354,7 +354,7 @@ template <>
 class formatter<VW::reductions::automl::config_type> : public formatter<std::string>
 {
 public:
-  auto format(VW::reductions::automl::config_type c, format_context& ctx) -> decltype(ctx.out())
+  auto format(VW::reductions::automl::config_type c, format_context& ctx) const -> decltype(ctx.out())
   {
     return formatter<std::string>::format(std::string{VW::to_string(c)}, ctx);
   }
diff --git a/vowpalwabbit/core/include/vw/core/ccb_label.h b/vowpalwabbit/core/include/vw/core/ccb_label.h
index 2e7e98539b6..73740f84ad1 100644
--- a/vowpalwabbit/core/include/vw/core/ccb_label.h
+++ b/vowpalwabbit/core/include/vw/core/ccb_label.h
@@ -81,7 +81,7 @@ template <>
 class formatter<VW::ccb_example_type> : public formatter<std::string>
 {
 public:
-  auto format(VW::ccb_example_type c, format_context& ctx) -> decltype(ctx.out())
+  auto format(VW::ccb_example_type c, format_context& ctx) const -> decltype(ctx.out())
   {
     return formatter<std::string>::format(std::string{VW::to_string(c)}, ctx);
   }
@@ -105,4 +105,4 @@ inline void parse_label(VW::ccb_label& ld, VW::label_parser_reuse_mem& reuse_mem
 {
   VW::parse_ccb_label(ld, reuse_mem, words, logger);
 }
-}  // namespace CCB
\ No newline at end of file
+}  // namespace CCB
diff --git a/vowpalwabbit/core/include/vw/core/slates_label.h b/vowpalwabbit/core/include/vw/core/slates_label.h
index 0cd089c2ebb..227cb39bc2f 100644
--- a/vowpalwabbit/core/include/vw/core/slates_label.h
+++ b/vowpalwabbit/core/include/vw/core/slates_label.h
@@ -81,9 +81,9 @@ template <>
 class formatter<VW::slates::example_type> : public formatter<std::string>
 {
 public:
-  auto format(VW::slates::example_type c, format_context& ctx) -> decltype(ctx.out())
+  auto format(VW::slates::example_type c, format_context& ctx) const -> decltype(ctx.out())
   {
     return formatter<std::string>::format(std::string{VW::to_string(c)}, ctx);
   }
 };
-}  // namespace fmt
\ No newline at end of file
+}  // namespace fmt
diff --git a/vowpalwabbit/core/include/vw/core/vw_string_view_fmt.h b/vowpalwabbit/core/include/vw/core/vw_string_view_fmt.h
index 0d42ac750dd..6f3cdff6300 100644
--- a/vowpalwabbit/core/include/vw/core/vw_string_view_fmt.h
+++ b/vowpalwabbit/core/include/vw/core/vw_string_view_fmt.h
@@ -13,6 +13,7 @@
 
 #include <fmt/core.h>
 #include <fmt/format.h>
+#include <fmt/ranges.h>
 
 namespace fmt
 {
diff --git a/vowpalwabbit/core/src/merge.cc b/vowpalwabbit/core/src/merge.cc
index 7425deea09c..46e2b16b5f4 100644
--- a/vowpalwabbit/core/src/merge.cc
+++ b/vowpalwabbit/core/src/merge.cc
@@ -16,6 +16,8 @@
 #include "vw/core/vw_math.h"
 #include "vw/io/io_adapter.h"
 
+#include <fmt/ranges.h>
+
 #include <algorithm>
 #include <limits>
 
diff --git a/vowpalwabbit/core/src/parse_args.cc b/vowpalwabbit/core/src/parse_args.cc
index 3d33bdecd4b..7feaccce6f1 100644
--- a/vowpalwabbit/core/src/parse_args.cc
+++ b/vowpalwabbit/core/src/parse_args.cc
@@ -44,6 +44,8 @@
 #include "vw/io/owning_stream.h"
 #include "vw/text_parser/parse_example_text.h"
 
+#include <fmt/ranges.h>
+
 #include <sys/stat.h>
 #include <sys/types.h>
 
diff --git a/vowpalwabbit/core/src/vw.cc b/vowpalwabbit/core/src/vw.cc
index c8af91a744d..1b739a1f52d 100644
--- a/vowpalwabbit/core/src/vw.cc
+++ b/vowpalwabbit/core/src/vw.cc
@@ -23,6 +23,7 @@
 #include "vw/core/unique_sort.h"
 #include "vw/text_parser/parse_example_text.h"
 
+#include <fmt/ranges.h>
 #include <iostream>
 
 namespace