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<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<link href="stíl.css" rel="stylesheet">
<link rel="icon" href="favicon.ico">
<meta charset="UTF-8">
<meta name="Author" content="Lars Bräsicke">
<meta name="GENERATOR" content="me fein">
<title>The Copula</title>
</head>
<body text="#000000" link="#0000EE" vlink="#551A8B" alink="#FF0000" bgcolor="#FFCC99" background="bg524f.jpg">
<table border="0" width="100%" bgcolor="#FFCC99">
<tr>
<td>
<h1 id="oben"><span class="red">Caibidil a <b>Ceathair</b>: The Copula(an Chopail) </span></h1>
<h1>
<i class="red">Copular forms </i></h1>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<hr>
<table border="0" width="100%" bgcolor="#FFFFCC">
<tr>
<td><a href="#Übersicht">copular forms-overview</a>
<br>
<a href="#len">lenition after the copula</a>
<br> <a href="#aus">omission of the copular form is</a>
<br>
<a href="#son">miscellaneous and variants </a>
<br>
<a href="#seo, sin, siud">Seo, sin, siúd as the copular forms</a></td></tr>
</table>
<h2 id="Übersicht"><span class="red">copular forms-overview</span></h2>
<table border="0" width="100%" bgcolor="#FFFFCC">
<tr bgcolor="#FFCC99">
<td rowspan="2"><b>clause form</b></td>
<td align="CENTER" colspan="2"><b>present tense</b></td>
<td align="CENTER" colspan="2"><b>preterite / conditional</b></td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#FFCC99">
<td><b>preceding a consonant</b></td>
<td><b>preceding a vowel</b></td>
<td><b>preceding a consonant</b></td>
<td><b>preceding a vowel</b></td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#FFCC99"><td colspan="5"> </td></tr>
<tr>
<td>affirmative clause </td>
<td class="red bold">is</td>
<td class="red bold">is</td>
<td class="red bold">ba</td>
<td><b><span class="red">b'</span> (dob')</b></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>negative clause </td>
<td nowrap><b><span class="red">ní</span> (chan, cha)</b></td>
<td nowrap><b><span class="red">ní </span><span class="lilac">h</span> (chan)</b></td>
<td nowrap><b><span class="red">níor</span> (ní ba, char)</b></td>
<td nowrap><b><span class="red">níorbh</span> (ní b', charbh)</b></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>affirmative question</td>
<td><b><span class="red">an </span>(ar)</b></td>
<td><b><span class="red">an </span>(ar, ab)</b></td>
<td><b><span class="red">ar </span>(an mba)</b></td>
<td><b><span class="red">arbh </span>(an mb')</b></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>negative question</td>
<td class="red bold">nach</td>
<td class="red bold">nach</td>
<td nowrap><b><span class="red">nár </span>(nach mba)</b></td>
<td nowrap><b><span class="red">nárbh </span>(nach mb')</b></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="5" bgcolor="#FFCC99"><b>conditional clauses </b></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>real conditional clause</td>
<td class="red bold">más</td>
<td class="red bold">más</td>
<td nowrap><b class="red">má ba</b></td>
<td nowrap><b class="red">má b'</b></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>irreal conditional clause</td>
<td class="red bold">-</td>
<td class="red bold">-</td>
<td nowrap><b class="red">dá mba</b></td>
<td nowrap><b class="red">dá mb'</b></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td nowrap>negative conditional clause </td>
<td nowrap><b><span class="red">mura</span> (maran, -r)</b></td>
<td nowrap><b><span class="red">murab</span> (marab)</b></td>
<td nowrap><b><span class="red">murar</span> (mara mba)</b></td>
<td nowrap><b><span class="red">murarbh</span> (mara mb')</b></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="5" bgcolor="#FFCC99"><b>subjunctive clauses </b></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>affirmative subjunctive clause</td>
<td class="red bold">gura</td>
<td class="red bold">gurab</td>
<td class="red bold">dá mba</td>
<td class="red bold">dá mb'</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>negative subjunctive clause</td>
<td class="red bold">nára</td>
<td class="red bold">nárab</td>
<td class="red bold">-</td>
<td class="red bold">-</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="5" bgcolor="#FFCC99"><b>relative clauses </b></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>direct relative clause</td>
<td class="red bold">is</td>
<td class="red bold">is</td>
<td class="red bold">ba</td>
<td class="red bold">ab</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>indirect relative clause</td>
<td class="red bold">ar</td>
<td class="red bold">arb</td>
<td><b><span class="red">ar</span> (a mba)</b></td>
<td><b><span class="red">arbh</span> (a mb')</b></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>negative relative clause</td>
<td class="red bold">nach</td>
<td class="red bold">nach</td>
<td><b><span class="red">nár </span>(nach mba)</b></td>
<td><b><span class="red">nárbh </span>(nach mb')</b></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="5" bgcolor="#FFCC99"><b>relative clauses with interrogatives</b></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Who (direct rel.)</td>
<td class="red bold">cé is</td>
<td class="red bold">cé is</td>
<td class="red bold">cé ba</td>
<td class="red bold">cé ab</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Whom (indirect rel.)</td>
<td class="red bold">cér</td>
<td class="red bold">(cérb)</td>
<td class="red bold">cér</td>
<td class="red bold">(cérbh)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Where, What </td>
<td class="red bold">cár</td>
<td class="red bold">cárb</td>
<td class="red bold">cár</td>
<td class="red bold">cárbh</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="5" bgcolor="#FFCC99"><b>in combination with interrogatives</b></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Who</td>
<td class="red bold">cé</td>
<td><b><span class="red">cé </span><span class="lilac">h</span></b></td>
<td class="red bold">cér</td>
<td class="red bold">cérbh</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="5" bgcolor="#FFCC99"><b>combinations with conjunctions </b></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>go (that)</td>
<td><b><span class="red">gur</span> (go)</b></td>
<td><b><span class="red">gurb</span> (gob)</b></td>
<td><b><span class="red">gur </span>(go mba)</b></td>
<td><b><span class="red">gurbh </span>(go mb')</b></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>nach (that not)</td>
<td class="red bold">nach</td>
<td class="red bold">nach</td>
<td><b><span class="red">nár </span>(nach mba)</b></td>
<td><b><span class="red">nárbh </span>(nach mb')</b></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>ó (since)</td>
<td class="red bold">ós</td>
<td class="red bold">ós</td>
<td class="red bold">ó ba</td>
<td class="red bold">ó b'</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>sula (before)</td>
<td class="red bold">sular</td>
<td class="red bold">sularb</td>
<td class="red bold">sular</td>
<td class="red bold">sularbh</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="5" bgcolor="#FFCC99"><b>combinations with prepositions</b></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>de (of)</td>
<td class="red bold">dar</td>
<td class="red bold">darb</td>
<td class="red bold">dar</td>
<td class="red bold">darbh</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>do (to)</td>
<td class="red bold">dar</td>
<td class="red bold">darb</td>
<td class="red bold">dar</td>
<td class="red bold">darbh</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>faoi (under)</td>
<td class="red bold">faoinar</td>
<td class="red bold">faoinarb</td>
<td class="red bold">faoinar</td>
<td class="red bold">faoinarbh</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>i (in)</td>
<td class="red bold">inar</td>
<td class="red bold">inarb</td>
<td class="red bold">inar</td>
<td class="red bold">inarbh</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>le (with)</td>
<td class="red bold">lenar</td>
<td class="red bold">lenarb</td>
<td class="red bold">lenar</td>
<td class="red bold">lenarbh</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>ó (from)</td>
<td class="red bold">ónar</td>
<td class="red bold">ónarb</td>
<td class="red bold">ónar</td>
<td class="red bold">ónarbh</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>trí (through)</td>
<td class="red bold">trínar</td>
<td class="red bold">trínarb</td>
<td class="red bold">trínar</td>
<td class="red bold">trínarbh</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#FFCC99">
<td colspan="5"><b>combinations with ní </b>(+ comparative)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>ní (thing)</td>
<td class="red bold">níos</td>
<td class="red bold">níos</td>
<td><b><span class="red">níba</span> (ní ba)</b></td>
<td><b><span class="red">níb</span> (ní b')</b></td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#FFCC99">
<td colspan="5"><b> </b></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b id="len" class="red"><i>lenition after the copula</i></b>
<ul>
<li><b>no lenition</b> after present tense- and subjunctive-forms</li>
<li><b class="lightgreen">lenition</b> after all forms in the preterite/conditional
<br>
(esp. in Ulster t,d,s after ba is not lenited)</li>
</ul>
<p><b id="aus" class="red"><i>omission of the copular form is</i></b>:
<ul>
<li>The copular form <b><i class="red">is</i></b>, preceding a pronoun or a noun, can be omitted :
<br>
<i>Is eisean an fear > Eisean an fear = He is the man</i>
<br>
In that case, an eventual subpredicate is omitted:
<br>
<i>Is é an fear atá ann > An fear atá ann = The man is here.</i></li>
<li>in normal copular clauses, <b><i class="red">is</i></b> cannot be omitted preceding adjectives:
<br>
<i>Is maith liom í = </i><em>I </em> <em><b>don't</b> like her</em> *<i>Maith liom é</i>
<br>
but in the usage for emphasis, one may omit it preceding an adjective:
<br>
<i>Is tuirseach atá sé > Tuirseach atá sé = Tired is he.</i></li>
<li>other copular forms than <i>is</i> are never omitted.</li>
</ul>
<p><b id="son" class="red"><i>miscellaneous and variants </i></b>
<ul>
<li><b><i class="red">is</i></b> is mostly pronounced [@s], with a broad [s], a slender [s'] only when preceding é/í/iad etc.</li>
<li>with the pronouns <i>é/í/iad</i> as well as <i>ea</i> and <i>éard</i> (= é an rud) <b><i class="red">is</i></b> contracts in in spoken Irish to [s'e:, s'i:, s'iad, s'a, s'e:rd]. Often this is also written as such: <b><i class="red">se, sí, siad, sea, séard</i></b> (also with an apostrophe:<i> 'sé, 'sí, 'siad</i>, etc.): <i>Is é an fear é > 'Sé an fear é = He's the man </i></li>
<li><b><i class="red">b'</i></b> mostly does <i>not</i> precede pronouns é, í, iad, ea : e.g.: <i>ba é = he was </i>.
<br>
Intead, a glide occurs in spoken Irish ([j] or [w]): ba é [baje:] or [bawe:]</li>
<li>an older form is the spelling <i><b class="red">badh</b></i> instead of <i>ba</i>, esp. in the conditional. (which explains the aforementioned glide: <i>badh é</i>)</li>
<li><b><i class="red">dob'/dob</i></b> partially still in use in Munster(particle <a href="part.htm">do</a> + b') also preceding pronouns: e.g. dob'é / dob é = he was </li>
<li><b><i class="red">ar</i></b> Connemara for <i>an</i>, <b><i class="red">ab</i></b> Connemara for <i>an</i> preceding é, í, iad e.g. ab é</li>
<li>forms like <b><i class="red">ní ba, an mba, nach mba, go mba, a mba, mara mba</i></b> are common in Connemara <br>
For the conditional, these forms reflect the original form. They are however replaced by those forms with -r in the standard, which originally are only the preterite forms.</li>
<li>Instead of the subjunctive forms <i>gura(b) / nára(b)</i> in Connemara <b><i class="red">go mba / nár ba</i></b> is used.
<li>forms of <i><b class="red">cha</b> (<b class="red">chan, char, charbh</b>)</i> come up instead of <i>ní</i> in Ulster (and Scotland), whereby cha precedes adjectives, and chan precedes pronouns and nouns.</li>
<li>Similarly, <i>chan</i> occurs in other forms ending in -n preceding nouns and pronouns, e.g. <b><i class="red">maran</i></b></li>
<li>in Ulster also <i>general</i> forms like <b><i class="red">is é, ab é, gob é, nab é</i></b> are in use (i.e. generally subpredicate é instead of <i>é/í/iad</i>, this é is independent of gender and number, partially also generalising in many uses, where it's lacking in other dialects, e.g.: <i>Is é tinn a bhí sí = It's sick she was </i> instead of <i>Is tinn a bhí sí</i> )</li>
<li>combinations with prepositions demonstrate the indirect relative clause (e.g.: an fear lenar maith é = the man, who likes it, as the variant of the form: an fear ar maith leis é) When negating, only "an fear nach maith leis é" is possible.</li>
<li>historical future forms of the copula (<i><b class="red">budh</b></i>; also relative: <i><b class="red">bhus</b></i> are now obsolete, but were at least used in written forms in days of yore.</li>
<li>in Munster, one uses more often <i>ná</i> as the verbal particle and conjunction instead of <i>nach</i>. Though this is never used as the copular form, rather in that case always <i><b class="red">nach</b></i>.</li>
</ul>
<p><br>
<hr width="100%">
<h2 id="seo, sin, siud"><span class="red">Seo, sin, siúd as the copular forms</span></h2>
<p><b>Seo, sin, siúd</b> count as the copular forms in these examples.
<br>
They are forms of the <a href="sonstig.htm#Dempron">demonstrative pronoun</a> with the meaning <i>"this is ", "that is ", "that one is "</i>
<br>
All of these forms without s- are Connacht- (Cois Fhairrge-) Irish. I don't know if they exist in other dialects. This is why only the dialect specific forms (<i>ab</i> instead of <i>an</i>, <i>marab</i> instead of <i>murab</i>) are given.
<br>
As the standard, there are longer forms, in which the demonstrative pronoun is not seen as the copular form. Only the short form in the statement with "seo/sin/siúd" is also to be found in the standard.
<br>
<table border bgcolor="#FFFFCC">
<tr>
<td><b>-</b></td>
<td><b>seo</b></td>
<td><b>sin</b></td>
<td><b>siúd</b></td>
<td><b>example</b></td>
<td><b>long form (standard)</b></td>
<td><b>translation</b></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>affirmative.:</td>
<td nowrap><b class="red">seo</b></td>
<td nowrap><b class="red">sin</b></td>
<td nowrap><b class="red">siúd</b></td>
<td>Seo é an rud a dhéanamh</td>
<td>Is é seo an rud a dhéanamh</td>
<td>This is the thing that is to be done.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>affirm. pret..:</td>
<td nowrap><b class="red">b'eo</b></td>
<td nowrap><b class="red">b'in</b></td>
<td nowrap><b class="red">b'iúd</b></td>
<td>B'eo é an rud a dhéanamh</td>
<td>Ba é seo an rud a dhéanamh</td>
<td>This was the thing that was to be done.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>neg.: </td>
<td nowrap><b class="red">ní heo</b></td>
<td nowrap><b class="red">ní hin</b></td>
<td nowrap><b class="red">ní hiúd</b></td>
<td>Ní heo é an rud a dhéanamh.</td>
<td>Ní hé seo an rud a dhéanamh.</td>
<td>This is not the thing that is to be done.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>question:</td>
<td nowrap><b class="red">ab 'eo</b></td>
<td nowrap><b class="red">ab 'in</b></td>
<td nowrap><b class="red">ab 'iud</b></td>
<td>Ab'eo é an rud a dhéanamh?</td>
<td>An é seo an rud a dhéanamh?</td>
<td>Is this the thing which is to be done?</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td nowrap>question neg.</td>
<td nowrap><b class="red">nach 'eo</b></td>
<td nowrap><b class="red">nach 'in</b></td>
<td nowrap><b class="red">nach 'iud</b></td>
<td>Nach'eo é an rud a dhéanamh?</td>
<td>Nach é seo an rud a dhéanamh?</td>
<td>Is this not the thing which is to be done?</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>cond. pos.</td>
<td nowrap><b class="red">más 'eo</b></td>
<td nowrap><b class="red">más 'in</b></td>
<td nowrap><b class="red">más 'iud</b></td>
<td>Más'eo é an rud a dhéanamh,</td>
<td>Más é seo an rud a dhéanamh,</td>
<td>If it is the thing to be done, </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>cond. neg.</td>
<td nowrap><b class="red">marab 'eo</b></td>
<td nowrap><b class="red">marab 'in</b></td>
<td nowrap><b class="red">marab 'iud</b></td>
<td>Marab'eo é an rud a dhéanamh,</td>
<td>Murab é seo an rud a dhéanamh,</td>
<td>If it is not the thing to be done,</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>that</td>
<td nowrap><b class="red">gurb 'eo</b></td>
<td nowrap><b class="red">gurb 'in</b></td>
<td nowrap><b class="red">gurb 'iud</b></td>
<td nowrap>Deir sé gurb'eo é an rud a dhéanamh.</td>
<td nowrap>Deir sé gurb é seo an rud a dhéanamh.</td>
<td nowrap>He said , that this was the thing to be done. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>that not </td>
<td nowrap><b class="red">nach 'eo</b></td>
<td nowrap><b class="red">nach 'in</b></td>
<td nowrap><b class="red">nach 'iud</b></td>
<td nowrap>Deir sé nach'eo é an rud a dhéanamh.</td>
<td nowrap>Deir sé nach é seo an rud a dhéanamh.</td>
<td nowrap>He said , that this was not the thing to be done.</td>
</tr>
</table>
<ul><li><b>The subpredicate</b>
<ul type="square">
<li>A personal pronoun as the subpredicate appears in the short forms preceding definite nouns after the demonstrative pronoun, because this counts as the copular form.
<i>Seo <b>é</b> an fear</i>. In Ulster it's omitted: <i>Seo an fear = This is the man.</i></li>
<li>In the long form there is always a personal pronoun preceding the demonstrative pronoun. e.g.:
<br>
<i>Is <b>é</b> seo an fear = Seo <b>é</b> an fear = This is the man.</i>
<br>
<i>Ab <b>í</b> sin an bhean = Ab'in <b>í</b> an bhean = She is the woman.</i>
<br>
<i>Gurb <b>é</b> seo an fear = Gurb'eo <b>é</b> an fear = That this is the man.</i></li>
</ul></li>
<li><b>Why is the s in seo/sin/siúd omitted?</b> Why does an apostrophe take its place?
<ul type="square">
<li>An explanation is the consideration that, seo/sin/siúd are actually combinations of the copular form "<i>is</i>" and the little words "<i>eo/in/iúd</i>", so that it must be "ab é is eo" , instead of "ab é seo" or even ab 'eo
<br>
This view is, while etymologically wrong, (the s- in seo has nothing to do with the copula), is very practical (and stands in analogies to others, forms that are really constructed that way like <i>is éard = séard, gurb éard, ab éard</i>, etc.)</li>
<li>Another explanation is a lenition of the s: sheo, shin, shiúd. This h-sound is not spoken.
<br>
Occasionally it is actually written that way: <b class="red">b'shin</b> (b'in) = that was, <b class="red">b'sheo</b> (b'eo) = this was, etc...
</li>
</ul></li></ul>
<p>
<hr>
<center><a href="#oben" title="nach oben">suas</a>
<br>
<br>
<a href="kopul1.htm">the copula</a>
<br>
<a href=".">Gramadach na Gaeilge</a>
<br>
</center>
<hr>
<center><font size="-2">© <a href="https://braesicke.de/index.htm">Lars Bräsicke</a> 1999 / 2000</font></center>
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