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+---
+title: Large array literals
+description: How do you deal with programs that are not only poorly written by normal standards, but are in fact not written by humans at all?
+---
+
+A PhD student here at DIKU, [William
+Due](https://github.com/WilliamDue), is conducting research into data
+parallel parsing (and eventually, algorithms data parallel compilation
+more generally). So far, the most significant research artifact is
+[Alpacc](https://github.com/diku-dk/alpacc), a tool that can given a
+Context Free Grammar can generate an appropriate data parallel parser.
+The generated parsers are expressed in Futhark (although Alpacc may
+also grow a CUDA backend at one point). It's interesting work,
+although not useful quite yet.
+
+The generated parsers are table-driven, and due to the special
+information needed to support parallel parsing (*way* outside the
+scope of this post, but see [William's BSc
+thesis](https://futhark-lang.org/student-projects/william-bsc-thesis.pdf)),
+the tables are pretty large. For example, [this JSON
+grammar](https://github.com/diku-dk/alpacc/blob/1aeca8bb530c63cc4a8a0a12a61fa5e6df8ff3da/grammars/json.alp)
+results a program `json.fut` (8.8MiB) that contains a table with
+917764 elements. At runtime, that's not so bad. Each element is an
+`i16`, so the run-time size is less than 2MiB. Not ideal, but
+tractable. The real problem is that this table is embedded in the
+generated Futhark program as a single large array literal:
+
+```Futhark
+def compositions : [917764]i16 = [51222u16, 51222u16, 12332u16, 12312u16, ...
+```
+
+The resulting program, despite being quite small besides this array
+literal, took 73s to compile. Much time was spent by the various
+compiler passes inspecting each individual element of this array
+literal and pondering what optimisations might be possible. Another
+significant cost centre was the final C code generation, which uses
+the library
+[language-c-quote](https://hackage.haskell.org/package/language-c-quote)
+to represent the syntax tree, which has a lot of overhead for each
+syntactical element. In most Futhark programs, array literals are tiny
+(because humans have to type them by hand!), and they can contain
+arbitrary expressions (not just constants), which means the compiler
+has good reason to look at their contents and try to optimise them.
+
+This is not the first time large array literals have cropped up in
+Futhark code. Years ago, [Martin Elsman](https://elsman.com) wrote [a
+library for Sobol numbers](https://github.com/diku-dk/sobol), which
+also contains a few enormous constants. Apparently at least *two*
+people really want to write (or more accurately *generate*) programs
+that look this way, so while it is tempting to simply state that
+Futhark is a *programming language* and not a *data storage format*,
+perhaps it is more productive to try to handle this kind of code
+properly.
+
+So why do people want to embed these array literals, rather than
+storing them in [some more convenient
+format](https://futhark.readthedocs.io/en/latest/binary-data-format.html))
+next to the program, and loading them at runtime? The main reason is
+convenience: it's lovely for a program to be completely
+self-contained, while it's annoying to load data at runtime and ferry
+around some "state" or "context" that contains the data - especially
+for completely static data like lookup tables.
+
+Making large array literals work well requires changes throughout the
+compiler, as we must avoid, as much as possible, ever having to look
+at the elements. In the parser, of course, that is impossible. While
+Futhark's parser is not particularly fast, neither is it exceptionally
+slow, and parsing `json.fut` takes 2.6s. This is by itself tolerable.
+The problem is in the rest of the compiler.
+
+To solve the problem, I added the notion of an "array value" to the
+various program representations (both the source AST and the IR). An
+array value is like an array literal, but while a literal can contain
+arbitrary expressions, an array value can contain only constant
+primitive values. I then modified the parser such that whenever it
+encounters an array literal that consists *exclusively* of explicitly
+typed numeric literals, it produces such an array value instead of an
+array literal. The compiler was then extended to pass these array
+values unmodified through all passes, without looking at the
+individual elements (how much can you optimise a constant anyway?). In
+the code generator, I added some [ad-hoc logic to generate the desired
+C array literal
+directly](https://github.com/diku-dk/futhark/blob/d7580aae5d4ecf0e9033f024be8cd10a2dd2e578/src/Futhark/CodeGen/Backends/GenericC/Code.hs#L369C5-L381),
+rather than passing through the somewhat inefficient representation
+and pretty-printer in language-c-quote.
+
+The C code generation was the largest cost centre, and fixing that
+took the compilation time from 73s to 14s. Adding the notion of array
+values brought it further down to 6.1s, of which 2.6s is parsing. This
+is pretty usable, and definitely makes Alpacc-generated code less
+annoying to work with. I was a bit worried that we'd have add an
+entire language concept to represent static data (perhaps like
+[`#embed` in C](https://thephd.dev/finally-embed-in-c23)), and I'm
+pleased we managed to avoid that for now.
+
+The remark about only doing this for arrays that contain *explicitly
+typed* number literals merits an elaboration. Like Rust, Futhark
+allows numeric constants to be suffixed with their type, such as
+`123i32`. If no suffix is present, type inference will figure out
+which type is intended. When an array literal `[1,2,3]` is seen, we
+cannot know which element type is intended until type checking, and so
+the parser cannot construct an appropriately typed array value. In
+contrast, `[1i32,2i32,3i32]` is unambiguous. It would certainly be
+possible to wait until after type checking and then construct the
+array value based on the inferred, but by then you've already paid the
+significant cost of doing unification and type checking on the (in the
+case of `json.fut`) nearly one million subexpressions constituting the
+elements. My hunch is that almost all code that contains enormous
+array literals is generated, and for a code generator it is no problem
+to always add the type suffixes, and it simplifies the compiler.
+
+At this point, the main thing I'm uncertain about is where to document
+this special quirk of the compiler. It's not really a question of
+semantics, so the [language
+reference](https://futhark.readthedocs.io/en/latest/language-reference.html)
+seems inappropriate. The [performance
+guide](https://futhark.readthedocs.io/en/latest/performance.html) is
+exclusively about run-time performance, but perhaps it is the best
+place to put strange implementation details that are important to know
+when you try to do strange things.