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6.1.1 What’s an Environment?You can use the new.env function to create a new environment:

e = new.env()
 e
-
## <environment: 0x7fe9410e3ec8>
+
## <environment: 0x7f7ae2b6cec8>

Unlike most objects, printing an environment doesn’t print its contents. Instead, R prints its type (which is environment) and a unique identifier -(0x7fe9410e3ec8 in this case).

+(0x7f7ae2b6cec8 in this case).

The unique identifier is actually the memory address of the environment. Every object you use in R is stored as a series of bytes in your computer’s random-access memory (RAM). Each byte in memory has a unique address, @@ -565,7 +565,7 @@

6.1.4 Call Environments
e = my_hello()
 e
-
## <environment: 0x7fe93cbe28d0>
+
## <environment: 0x7f7aebc538d0>

And the variable hello exists in the call environment, but not in the global environment:

exists("hello", g)
@@ -579,9 +579,9 @@

6.1.4 Call Environments
e2 = my_hello()
 e
-
## <environment: 0x7fe93cbe28d0>
+
## <environment: 0x7f7aebc538d0>
e2
-
## <environment: 0x7fe9445c1730>
+
## <environment: 0x7f7aebf5ef30>

By creating a new environment for every call, R isolates code in the function body from code outside of the body. As a result, most R functions have no side effects. This is a good thing, since it means you generally don’t have @@ -832,7 +832,7 @@

6.1.7.1 The Colon Operators 
dplyr::filter
## function (.data, ..., .by = NULL, .preserve = FALSE) 
@@ -844,14 +844,14 @@ 
6.1.7.1 The Colon Operators
ggplot2::ggplot
## function (data = NULL, mapping = aes(), ..., environment = parent.frame()) 
 ## {
 ##     UseMethod("ggplot")
 ## }
-## <bytecode: 0x7fe93fe57e38>
+## <bytecode: 0x7f7ae9f6a638>
 ## <environment: namespace:ggplot2>

The related triple-colon operator ::: gets a private variable in a package. Generally these are private for a reason! Only use ::: if you’re @@ -1096,13 +1096,13 @@

6.4.1 Method Dispatch
split
## function (x, f, drop = FALSE, ...) 
 ## UseMethod("split")
-## <bytecode: 0x7fe941aa3fe0>
+## <bytecode: 0x7f7ae65f07e0>
 ## <environment: namespace:base>

Another is the plot function, which creates a plot:

plot
## function (x, y, ...) 
 ## UseMethod("plot")
-## <bytecode: 0x7fe941d360f8>
+## <bytecode: 0x7f7ae9bc8ef8>
 ## <environment: namespace:base>

The UseMethod function requires the name of the generic (as a string) as its first argument. The second argument is optional and specifies the object to use @@ -1131,7 +1131,7 @@

6.4.1 Method Dispatch6.4.1 Method Dispatch4.3 Global Options4.4.6.1 Fixing The Bug
resample = function(data, B) {
   N = length(data)
   result = numeric(B)
@@ -1050,8 +1050,8 @@ 
4.5.2 Benchmarkingmicrobenchmark(A = runif(1e5), B = rnorm(1e5))
## Unit: milliseconds
 ##  expr      min       lq     mean   median       uq      max neval cld
-##     A 1.222137 1.551553 1.918578 1.897681 2.134616 5.410240   100  a 
-##     B 3.911026 4.473120 5.264633 5.162160 6.039717 9.846878   100   b
+## A 1.289372 1.561523 1.844360 1.761270 2.012996 5.612642 100 a +## B 4.102926 4.568713 5.246599 5.189999 5.751217 9.335760 100 b

The microbenchmark has parameters to control the number of times each expression runs, the units for the timings, and more. You can find the details in ?microbenchmark.