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* III Making an Argument
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Expand Up @@ -237,6 +237,133 @@ point, you have posed a problem that they recognize needs a solution.
10. Acknowledgments and Responses
11. Warrants

* III Making an Argument
* Prologue: Assembling a Research Argument
* 7 Making Good Arguments: An Overview
* 7.1 Argument as a Conversation with Readers
* 7.2 Supporting Your Claim
* 7.3 Acknowledging and Responding to Anticipated Questions and Objections
* 7.4 Connecting Claims and Reasons with Warrants
* 7.5 Building a Complex Argument Out of Simple Ones
* 7.6 Creating an Ethos by Thickening Your Argument
* ★ Quick Tip: A Common Mistake—Falling Back on What You Know
* 8 Making Claims
* 8.1 Determining the Kind of Claim You Should Make
* 8.2 Evaluating Your Claim
* 8.3 Qualifying Claims to Enhance Your Credibility
* 9 Assembling Reasons and Evidence
* 9.1 Using Reasons to Plan Your Argument
* 9.2 Distinguishing Evidence from Reasons
* 9.3 Distinguishing Evidence from Reports of It
* 9.4 Evaluating Your Evidence
* 10 Acknowledgments and Responses
* 10.1 Questioning Your Argument as Your Readers Will
* 10.2 Imagining Alternatives to Your Argument
* 10.3 Deciding What to Acknowledge
* 10.4 Framing Your Responses as Subordinate Arguments
* 10.5 The Vocabulary of Acknowledgment and Response
* ★ Quick Tip: Three Predictable Disagreements
* 11 Warrants
* 11.1 Warrants in Everyday Reasoning
* 11.2 Warrants in Academic Arguments
* 11.3 Understanding the Logic of Warrants
* 11.4 Testing Warrants
* 11.5 Knowing When to State a Warrant
* 11.6 Using Warrants to Test Your Argument
* 11.7 Challenging Others’ Warrants
* ★ Quick Tip: Reasons, Evidence, and Warrants

前情回顾:
* 写文章的时候呢要跟读者建立联系,因为我们写的文章最后是要给读者来读的;
* 在选题的时候要选择有价值的题,读者认为这个问题是值得解决的。

对大部分研究来讲,很难在一开始就能预测到我们想要怎么样的结果,如果在一开始就知道最后的方案是什么样子,结果是什么样子的话,很有可能这个就不叫研究,这个东西一般叫做工程。
* 工程就是我们一开始能想清楚答案,只要我们把它执行好就行了;
* 对研究来讲,我们通常要去探索未知的一些答案。

这个故事(research argument,学术的论点或论述)呢,就是用来回答所有我们可以预测的一些读者的问题。

如果整个这本书要抽出两个核心的问题的话,其实也就是 **So What****我为什么要信** 这两个问题。


### 7 论证的总览 Making Good Arguments

整个论证里面几个核心的东西:
* 首先要提出一个论点;
* 然后用一些原因和证据来支撑我们的论点;
* 有时候需要承认和回复一些别的观点;
* 最后有时候要提供一下你推理的一些逻辑的原则;

In a research argument, you make a claim, back it with reasons supported by
evidence, acknowledge and respond to other views, and sometimes explain
your principles of reasoning.

所以写作的核心是说,要在脑海中去预测这样子对话,使得在跟人真的对话之前,把所有这种可能性 —— 别人攻击你的地方,以及缺失的理由、论点、论据全部补充起来,这样子就能写出别人相信的故事了。

几个重要的元素:
* 论点:我们核心的理由是什么东西,很多时候文章最后就是一个核心的论点,当然论点还有别的子论点支撑;
Claim: What do you want me to believe? What’s your point?
* 理由:为什么我们的论点是对的;
Reasons: Why do you say that? Why should I agree?
* 论据:一些数据点或者别人的工作;
Evidence: How do you know? Can you back it up?
* 承认和回复:对于别的一个观点的一个说明;
Acknowledgment and Response: But what about ... ?
* 保证:这个逻辑是怎么样过来的,如果读者不理解的话,应该把它说出来,解释一下我们的理由为什么能解释我们的结论好;
Warrant: How does that follow? What’s your logic? Can you explain your reasoning?

理由必须是在论据之上的,结论是基于好的原因,理由又是基于好的论据;
* You have to base your claim on good reasons.
* You have to base your claim on good evidence.

{% include image.html url="/assets/images/241218-book-the-craft-of-resea~15/20250111121309.png" %}

7.6 要把 argument 弄得“厚一点”:
在支撑论点的时候,正正反反啊都要多讲一点,因为我们的目的是要通过这些比较厚实的论述,让读者能够相信我们所说的内容。


### 8 Making Claims 关于声明

**怎么样去看现在想到的声明重不重要** :把结论反过来看一下反过来的那个结论是长什么样子。

But you don’t have to make big claims to make a useful contribution: small
findings can open up new lines of thinking.

8.3 **怎么样把论点变得更加可信一点**
* **如果想让别人信我们说的话,最好不要把话说的特别的满;**
* 可以承认一些局限性的条件。Acknowledge Limiting Conditions
* 要去想的限制条件的时候,是从读者角度来出发的。Use Hedges to Limit Certainty
从他们的角度来讲,去想想我们的理由也好我们的论据也好,在哪些地方更加薄弱一点,
把这些薄弱的地方作为限制条件给出来之话,那么对整个的可信度就会增加。

Of course, if you hedge too much, you will seem timid or uncertain. But in
most fields, readers distrust flatfooted certainty expressed in words like **all,**
**no one, every, always, never, and so on** . Some teachers say they object to all
hedging, but what most of them really reject are hedges that qualify every
trivial claim. And some fields do tend to use fewer hedges than others. It
takes a deft touch. Hedge too much and you seem mealy-mouthed; hedge too
little and you can seem overconfident. Unfortunately, the line between the
two is thin. So watch how those in your field manage uncertainty and do
likewise.

使用一些降低语气确信度的词,使得论点显得没那么的强硬:
* 如果讲的特别自信的话,读者会觉得更加的难以置信一些;
* 如果用了大量这样子的不确定的词汇呢,整个文章可能会显得比较弱,别人会觉得你可能自己也不是那么的确信。
* 尽量要避免这些词汇:all、no one、every、always、never **哈哈**
* attention is all you need
* segment anything
* SOTA

一个好的论点一定是具体的而且是有价值的,可以通过把论点写的没那么满,使得读者认为你的论点解释出来更加容易一些。

要讲一个故事,让读者信你写的东西。
想一个故事和做研究是交错进行的过程,故事会随着研究的进展发生改变,因为很难一开始就预测到会得到什么样的研究结果。
也不能等所有实验都做完了写论文的时候再去想故事,这种情况往往要补做很多工作。
讲故事的时候,要不断站在读者的角度去思考,为什么要相信这个事情。
尽可能把所有读者可能攻击、疑问的点都考虑到,把相应的论点论据阐述清楚。
整个做研究的过程不断问自己 so what 和读者为什么要相信这两个问题基本就可以指导你的研究了。
此外,文中得到的结论必须要有相应的证据支撑。


## IV. Writing Your Argument

Expand All @@ -250,6 +377,8 @@ point, you have posed a problem that they recognize needs a solution.
16. Introductions and Conclusions
17. Revising Style: Telling Your Story Clearly

{% include image.html url="/assets/images/241218-book-the-craft-of-resea~15/20250111114525.png" caption="小孩哥的例子" %}


## V. Some Last Considerations

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